LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Gl  FT    OF 


Class 


MANUAL 


OP  THE 


Elementary  Course  of  Study 


FOR  THE 


Common  Schools  of  Wisconsin. 


THIRTEENTH    EDITION 


C.     P.    CARY, 

State  Superintendent. 


NOTE—  This  Manual  is  designed  not  only  for  the  present,  but  also  for 
the  future  use  of  the  common  schools.  The  teachers  of  these  schools,  and 
the  clerks  of  the  district  boards,  who  may  receive  copies,  should  pre- 
serve them. 


MADISON,  WIS. 

DEMOCRAT  FEINTING  COMPANY,  STATE  PRINTEB 
1906, 


MANUAL 


OF  THE 


Elementary  Course  of  Study 


FOR  TUB 


Common  Schools  of  Wisconsin 


T II I  It T K  K NT  II    EDITION 


C.     P.    CARV, 

State  Superintendent 


NOTE—  This  Manual  is  designed  not  only  for  the  Present,  but  also  for 
the  future  use  of  the  common  schools.  The  teachers  of  these  schools,  and 
the  clerks  of  the  district  boards,  who  may  receive  copies,  should  pre- 
serve them. 


MADISON,  WJS, 

DEMOCRAT  FEINTING  COMPANY,  STATE  PBINTEB 
1906. 


4= 


CONTENTS. 


Page 
GENERAL    SUGGESTION'S-Courses    of    Study 1-9 

READING    10-81 

Fundamental  Things  for  Teachers  to  Consider  10-14 

Beginning  Reading)  14-26 

Work  in  Phonics,  Articulation  and  Pronunciation— the  Vocal  Mechanics 

of  Reading  26-33 

Work  in  Thought-getting— the  Mental   Aspect  of  Reading  33-40 

Oral    Reading— Thougiht    Expression     Involving    the     Vocal-Mechanical 

Acts  41-47 

Illustrative  Exercises   .- 47-54 

COURSES  IN   READING    54-81 

Primary   Form    5-1-72 

Middle   Form    7J-7S 

Upper    Form    , 78-81 

LANGUAGE     82-106 

General  suggestions   82-86 

Primary  Form  86-99 

Middle  Form   99-103 

Upper  Form   103-1C6 

ARITHMETIC     106-144 

Primary  Form  107-116 

Middle  Form  116-130 

Upper  Form  13(M40 

Synopsis  of  Arithmetic,  by  Years  141-144 

GEOGRAPHY    1 45-187 

General   Suggestions    145-148 

Primary  and   Middle  Form,  by  Years  148-166 

Upper  Form,  by  Years  166-184 

GENERAL  SUMMARY    A.VD   TEST    FOR    GRADUATION* 184-187 

CIVICS  188-201 

Middle  Form  188-194 

Upper  Form   104-199 

Suggestions    199-201 


182503 


iv  CONTENTS. 

Page 

HISTORY   201-221 

Primary  and  Middle  Forms  201-207 

Upper  Form  207-220 

Suggestion* 220-221 

ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE  222-236 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 237-248 

Primary  Form  237-240 

Middle   Form    240-244 

Upper   Form   244-248 

WRITING    249-252 

DRAWING-SINGING    253-254 

SPELLING    255-257 

Primary  Form  255 

Middle  Form  255-256 

Upper  Form  25(3-257 

CARE  AND  USE  OF  THE  SCHOOL  I.H'.UARY  258-261 

Primary  Form  259 

Middle  Form   259-260 

Upper  Form   260-261 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  PUPILS   UNDER   THE    COURSE    OF   STUDY....  262-265 

PROGRAM  OF  DAILY   EXERCISES   266-271 

SCHOOL  RECORDS   271-273 

EXAMINATIONS    AND     GRADUATION 273-275 

FORMS  FOR  CERTIFICATES  275-270 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED   SCHOOLS   277-312 

INTRODUCTORY  279-280 

LAWS  RELATING  TO  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS  280-282 

First  Year's  Work  283-285 

Second  Year's  Work  286-288 

Third  Year's  Work  288-292 

Fourth  Year's  York  292-295 

Fifth  Year's  York  295-299 

Sixth   Year's  Work    299-303 

Seventh  Year's  Work   303-306 

Eighth  Year's  Work  306-311 

Ninth  Year's  Work  3tt 


GENEEAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


The  numerous  tasks  facing  the  rural  school  teacher  from  day 
to  day,  make  it  difficult  if  not  impossible  for  her  to  become  a 
master  of  all  the  details  of  her  daily  work.  Attention  is  called 
here  to  some  of  the  larger  things  which  she  may  do  with  rea- 
sonable success,  and  which  if  mastered,  will  go  a  long  way  to- 
ward eliminating  the  smaller  difficulties. 

1.  Distinguish  between  the  memoriter  and  the  rational  studies. 

Rural  school  teachers  waste  much  time  by  their  failure  to 
distinguish  between  drill  studies  and  rational  studies.  Drill 
studies  are  branches  that  aim  to  secure  as  a  result  certain  defi- 
nite mechanical  execution.  Such  branches  need  little  discus- 
sion. Practice  is  the  road  to  success.  The  cardinal  drill 
studies  are  spoiling,  writing,  and  the  parts  of  arithmetic  which 
have  to  do  with  skill  in  computation.  Constant  repetition  un- 
der right  conditions  is  the  sure  means  by  which  good  spellers, 
good  writers  and  rapid  calculators  are  developed.  Teachers 
should  make  up  their  minds  to  this  and  drill  for  results. 

On  the  other  hand  much  time  is  wasted  and  the  mental  pow- 
ers deadened  because  repetition  is  demanded  in  branches  where 
reason  should  rule.  This  fault  is  illustrated  in  the  teaching  of 
History,  Reading  and  Geography,  especially  in  the  Upper  Form. 
Memoriter  repetition  of  the  text  in  history  is  of  little  value. 
The  student  should  be  held  to  a  rational  statement  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  lesson  and  should  be  obliged  to  prove  his  under- 
standing of  it  so  far  as  possible. 

The  teacher  should  classify  the  branches  to  be  taught  into 
the  memoriter  and  the  rational.  She  should  likewise  discrimi- 
nate in  each  branch  between  the  mechanical  parts  and  the  ra- 

2— a 


MANUAL,  OF   THE   EuLJEAOiiN  TAltY    COUiUSJi,   Otf    STUDY. 

tional  parts.  The  rational  parts  should  be  discussed  pro  and 
con.  The  mechanical  parts  should  receive  a  sufficient  amount 
of  drill  to  insure  accuracy  and  rapidity. 

2.  Teach  the  pupils  how  to  study. 

The  teacher  should  investigate  the  pupils'  methods  of  study, 
that  is  to  say,  should  find  out  what  they  do  when  they  study. 
To  do  this,  she  should  observe  the  results  given  back  in  recita- 
tion ;  she  should  ask  questions  in  class  that  will  reveal  not 
merely  what  they  have  learned,  but  how  they  have  learned. 
She  should  supplement  the  knowledge  thus  gained  by  observ- 
ing their  methods  of  work  at  their  seats. 

Along  with  this  process  the  teacher  should  teach  pupils  how 
to  study  to  better  advantage ;  this  she  should  do  consciously 
and  persistently.  She  should  make  pupils  conscious  of  the 
way  questions,  outlines,  notes,  etc.,  help  them  to  learn  and  to 
think.  She  should  show  them  how  to  read,  how  and  when  to 
ask  questions  of  themselves  as  they  read.  She  should  show 
them  how  she  would  study  the  lesson,  or  she  may  at  times 
study  it  with  them  with  the  purpose  in  mind  to  help  them  to 
help  themselves  in  the  lessons  that  follow.  Following  this  she 
should  make  them  aware  that  she  is  testing  their  power  in 
this  direction,  testing  them  to  discover  for  herself  how  much 
they  have  gained  in  self  help  from  her  help. 

Drills  and  reviews,  in  class,  upon  the  fundamental  facts, 
rules  and  processes  of  a  study  raise  the  pupils'  ideals  of  attain- 
ment and  should  stimulate  them  to  drill  and  review  by  them- 
selves. 

In  the  rational  phases  of  any  study,  questions  asked  by  the 
teacher  in  class,  which  call  for  causes  or  effects,  reasons  or  re- 
lations and  which  compel  pupils  to  think  out  in  terms  of  their 
own  experiences  or  back  to  what  has  gone  before  in  the  book, 
should  be  brought  to  the  consciousness  of  the  children  in  a 
way  to  get  them  into  the  habit  of  thinking  in  a  similar  man- 
ner for  themselves  as  they  study. 

Merely  to  question  pupils  in  order  to  test  them  and  to  mark 
clown  the  result,  merely  to  help  them  when  they  fail  and  then 


3 

to  help  them  again  and  again  engenders  dependence.  Such 
work  does  not  develop  in  them  initiative  or  the  power  of  self 
help  unless  it  is  carefully  planned  to  help  them  help  themselves, 
and  unless  pupils  are  conscious  that  the  assistance  given  is 
given  for  that  purpose.  Simply  to  question  for  reasons  and 
relations  may  not  teach  pupils  to  think  for  themselves ;  rather 
it  may  develop  a  habit  of  thinking  only  when  stimulated  to 
think.  The  teacher  must  stimulate  pupils  to  ask  themselves 
and  then  to  answer  such  questions,  and  must  show  them  how 
such  questions  arise  out  of  the  very  nature  of  the  study. 

3.  Make  careful  assignments  of  lessons,  and  make  the  recitation 
a  vigorous  and  thorough  exercise. 

Growth  in  the  power  to  study  depends  much  upon  assign- 
ments. Occasionally  in  all  studies  carefully  prepared  assign- 
ments in  much  detail  should  be  make  in  order  to  show  pupils 
how  to  plan  their  work  for  themselves.  As  a  rule,  however, 
the  assignment  need  not  be  elaborate  or  long  drawn  out,  but  it 
should  be  explicit  and  discriminating  and  adapted  to  the  length 
of  the  study  period,  and  to  the  ability  .of  the  pupils.  It  should 
be  so  explicit  that  no  pupil  can  truthfully  say,  "  I  did  not  know 
what  we  were  to  do."  It  should  be  discriminating  so  that 
pupils  may  use  their  time  to  the  best  advantage  in  mastering 
the  essentials  of  the  lesson. 

To  repeat,  the  three  tests  of  every  assignment  are: 

1.  Is  it  explicit? 

2.  Is  it  discriminating? 

3.  Is  it  adapted  to  the   student's  time  for  preparation,  and 
his  present  ability  and  needs? 

That  there  is  a  distressing  lack  of  intelligent  study  and  reci- 
tation in  a  large  proportion  of  our  rural  schools  is  the  one  uni- 
form report  that  is  made  by  competent  inspectors.  There  is  a 
lack  of  thought,  lack  of  understanding  or  comprehension,  lack 
of  grasp  of  the  meaning  of  the  lessons  "learned"  and  "recited." 

It  has  been  stated  by  inspectors  that  it  is  rare  to  hear  in 
rural  schools  such  questions  and  directions  as  the  following: 
"What does  this  mean?"  "Why?"  "Give  an  example."  "Ex- 


4:  MANUAL   OF   THE   ELEME.NTABY    COURSE   OF    STUDY. 

plain."  "Did  you  ever  see  anything  like  this  you  have  just 
read  about?"  Without  the  discriminating  and  appropriate  use 
of  such  questions,  the  pupils  are  not  led  to  relate  the  facts  con- 
tained in  their  lessons,  or  to  grasp  principles,  and  the  result 
is  not  knowledge  or  power,  but  the  deadening  of  all  school  in- 
terest and  the  atrophy  of  all  native  faculties  of  the  mind.  The 
child  grows  only  through  his  own  self  activity.  Neither  the 
question  nor  the  teacher's  manner  should  imply  the  answer. 
Every  pupil  in  the  class  should  give  careful  attention  to  all 
that  is  said  during  the  recitation. 

4.  Reduce  the  number  of  daily  recitations  to  the  minimum. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  suggestions  that  will  apply  in  all  cases. 
The  teacher  must  study  the  situation  and  proceed  in  the  man- 
ner that  she  thinks  will  best  apply  to  her  school. 

Geography  classes  may  often  be  combined  to  advantage. 
Two  small  classes  in  written  arithmetic  may  be  called  at  the 
same  time  even  when  the  work  is  widely  separated.  The 
teacher  can  give  one  section  work  at  the  board  while  she  ques- 
tions the  other  section,  and  vice  versa. 

Often  spelling  classes  may  be  combined.  It  will  of  course 
suggest  itself  to  the  teacher  to  have  all  pupils  work  together  in 
such  subjects  as  writing,  drawing,  nature  study  and  singing. 

The  more  advanced  pupils  in  crowded  schools  need  not  re- 
cite every  day  of  the  week  in  every  study  they  are  pursuing. 
Note  the  suggestions  on  classification  and  program  elsewhere 
given  in  this  manual. 

5.  See  to  the  heating  and  ventilation. 

Teachers   will  find  very   few  of  the  country  school  houses 
equipped  with    anything  that  approaches  an  ideal  system  of 
heating  and  ventilation.     Nearly  all  are  heated  with    stoves 
and  have  no  means  of  letting  foul  air  out,   or  fresh  air  into 
the  room  except  by  windows  and  doors. 

The  best  of  judgment,  therefore,  needs  to  be  exercised  by 
the  teacher  in  order  that  the  school-room  may  be  kept  prop- 
erly heated  and  ventilated. 

The  school  board  should  be  induced  if  possible  to  provide  a 


GEJNEJtAJL 

jacket  for  the  stove  if  it  is  not  already  supplied  with  one. 
This  jacket  should  be  of  heavy,  galvanized  iron,  should  be 
placed  several  inches  from  the  stove,  should  entirely  surround 
the  stove,  should  be  open  at  the  top,  should  extend  to  the  floor, 
should  have  a  hinged  door  somewhat  larger  than  the  one  in 
the  stove  and  opening  directly  in  front  of  the  door  in  the  stove 
and  should  have  near  the  bottom  a  number  of  large  holes  that 
can  be  opened  and  closed  at  will.  The  jacket  should  extend 
above  the  stove  a  number  of  inches— a  foot  at  least.  An  air 
shaft  at  least  twenty  inches  square  should  be  so  placed  as  to 
communicate  with  the  outside  air  and  with  an  opening  beneath 
the  stove.  A  heavy  wire  screen  should  be  placed  over  the 
outer  end  of  this  air  shaft  and  the  shaft  should  be  provided 
with  a  damper  so  that  the  outside  air  can  be  shut  off  during 
the  process  of  heating  the  room  in  the  morning,  but  care  must 
be  taken  to  open  the  holes  in  the  jacket  above  referred  to 
whenever  the  damper  in  the  air  shaft  is  closed,  otherwise  the 
intense  heat  may  result  in  serious  damage.  When  a  jacket  is 
thus  used  a  foul  air  pipe  should  be  placed  in  the  chimney  with 
a  grate  opening  into  it  through  the  mopboard  near  the  floor. 
The  heat  in  the  chimney  heats  the  air  in  the  foul  air  pipe, 
causing  it  to  rise.  This  creates  a  draft,  by  means  of  which  the 
foul  air  of  the  room  is  carried  off.  If  the  teacher  and  the 
county  superintendent  will  take  pains  to  explain  to  the  school 
board  the  necessity  for  some  means  of  ventilation  it  is  probable 
that  in  a  great  many  cases  favorable  action  may  be  secured. 
When  nothing  better  can  be  done  the  teacher  must  ventilate 
by  means  of  windows  and  doors.  In  such  cases  the  utmost 
care  should  be  exercised  in  order  to  prevent  direct  draft  from 
striking  the  children.  Windows  should  always  be  opened  on 
the  side  opposite  that  from  which  the  wind  blows,  and  should 
not  in  cold  weather  or  when  the  children  are  perspiring  from 
exercise,  ever  be  opened  on  both  sides  at  once.  Probably  tha 
safest  and  most  practical  way  to  ventilate  with  windows  is  to 
place  a  board  from  four  to  six  inches  wide  under  the  bottom  ol 
the  window.  This  will  prevent  any  direct  draft  and  will  allow 
the  air  to  pass  up  between  the  sashes  and  circulate  through 


6  MANUAL   OP   THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF    STUDY. 

the  room.  A  reliable  thermometer  should  be  placed  in  every 
school-room  and  the  temperature  should  be  kept  at  from  OS  to 
70  degrees.  The  temperature  and  ventilation  of  the  room  are 
matters  that  should  never  be  neglected  by  the  teacher. 

6.  Outbuildings. 

There  should  be  separate  outbuildings  for  both  boys  and  girls, 
and  they  should  be  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  grounds. 
They  should  have  good  doors,  and  should  be  provided  with 
strong  lock  and  should  be  kept  locked  at  night.  They  should 
be  stormproof,  so  that  rain  and  snow  may  be  kept  out.  They 
should  be  scrubbed  frequently  and  should  always  be  neat,  and 
*ree  from  obscene  writing,  pictures  and  drawings. 

7.  Lighting,  Seating,  Decoration. 

Most  school  buildings  are  poorly  lighted.  To  determine 
whether  there  is  sufficient  window  space  or  not,  the  teacher 
may  calculate  the  number  of  square  feet  of  floor  surface  by 
multiplying  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  room  together,  then 
find  the  total  area  of  window  surface  and  divide  the  former  by 
the  latter.  If  the  quotient  is  five  or  less  there  is  enough  win- 
dow surface,  but  if  the  quotient  should  prove  to  be  seven  or 
more  there  is  not  enough  window  surface.  However,  teachers 
are  often  careless  and  allow  the  windows  to  be  covered  by  win- 
dow-curtains m  part,  at  least,  when  such  covering  is  not  needed 
for  the  purpose  of  shutting  out  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Pu- 
pils should  never  be  allowed  to  face  the  windows  while  study- 
ing. A  mistake  is  often  made  in  arranging  the  seats,  the 
common  method  being  to  place  the  largest  seat  in  the  back  of 
the  room,  then  the  next  smaller  and  so  on  down  to  the  smallest 
size.  Such  an  arrangement  makes  it  necessary  for  many  pu- 
pils to  be  seated  upon  a  seat  that  is  relatively  too  high  for  the 
desk  in  front.  Pupils  are  thus  required  to  bend  forward  over 
their  work  to  a  degree  that  is  a  menace  to  health.  The  vital 
organs  are  compressed  unduly,  and  the  shoulders  stooped.  A 
much  better  way  is  to  arrange  the  largest  seats  in  the  outsMj 
rows,  or  rows  next  to  the  walls.  Then  the  smaller  seats  in  tli3 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS.  7 

no  N't  row  and  so  on  toward  the  middle  of  the  room.  Much 
more  attention  should  be  given  than  usually  is  to  the  matter 
of  decoration  of  the  school  room.  Space  forbids  the  attempt  to 
give  specific  directions  as  to  decoration  but  the  teacher  should 
first  of  all  clear  out  all  of  the  old  rubbish  that  has  accumulated 
in  the  way  of  advertising  chromos  and  the  like,  should  clean 
the  walls  thoroughly  and  then  put  up  such  decoration  as  may 
be  available  for  the  purpose.  It  is  far  better,  however,  to  have 
the  room  severely  plain  than  to  have  the  walls  covered  with 
unsightly  dust-gathering  material. 

Attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  school  grounds  with  a 
view  to  their  improvement.  Teachers  who  are  interested  will 
usually  find  ways  and  means  of  temporary,  if  not  permanent, 
improvement. 

8.  Discipline  and  Management. 

The  ideal  school  is  an  earnest,  cheerful,  hard-working  com- 
munity, without  any  serious  internal  strife  or  discord.  To  bring 
about  and  maintain  such  a  condition  the  community,  the  school 
board,  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  must  all  work  in  harmony  to 
the  end  that  the  school  may  accomplish  its  proper  work  of  de- 
veloping character,  training  and  developing  intelligence,  and 
giving  skill  in  using  the  knowledge  that  is  of  most  value  in 
every  day  life  and  in  further  acquisition  of  knowledge. 

The  teacher's  fitness  for  her  work  is  shown  in  the  tact  and 
ability  with  which  she  organizes  the  various  elements  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  and  secures  the  hearty  co-operation  of 
all.  The  school  room  should  at  all  times  be  quiet  and  orderly — 
not  a  death-like  stillness,  but  the  quiet  that  results  from  strict 
attention  to  business. 

The  suggestions  given  above  are  all  so  evident  and  so  com- 
monplace that  the  careless  teacher  may  pass  over  them  in  a 
thoughtless  manner.  But  if  the  teacher  will  ponder  over  the 
suggestions  from  time  to  time,  test  her  own  work  in  its  details 
by  them,  and  seriously  strive  to  improve  her  school  and  its  en- 
vironment, the  results  will  tell.  It  is  necdbss  to  say  that  no 
effort  has  been  made  to  exhaust  the  subject  of  rural  school 


8  MANUAL  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF    STUDY. 

pedagogy.  On  the  other  hand  the  effort  has  been  made  to 
point  oat  a  few  of  the  more  obvious  weak  spots  in  rural  school 
work. 

SCOPE  OF  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

This  course  is  based  on  the  requirement  of  the  law  that  cer- 
tain branches  shall  be  taught  in  the  public  schools.  Section 
447,  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  contains  this  provision:  "Orthog- 
raphy, Orthoepy,  Reading,  Writing,  Grammar,  Geography, 
Elements  of  Agriculture,  Arithmetic,  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  Constitution  of  this  state,  shall  be  taught 
in  every  district  school,  and  such  other  branches  as  the  board 
may  determine."  Section  447a,  requires  that  provision  shall 
be  made  by  the  proper  local  school  authorities  for  instructing 
"all  pupils  in  all  schools  supported  by  public  money  or  under 
state  control,  in  physiology  and  hygiene  with  special  reference 
to  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  sys- 
tem." Instruction  in  drawing  and  vocal  music  is  made  op- 
tional for  two  reasons:  first,  the  law  does  not  specially  provide 
that  these  studies  shall  be  taught  in  public  schools;  second,  the 
majority  of  the  teachers  in  elementary  schools  are  not  yet  quali- 
fied to  teach  them.  Still,  it  is  urged  that  regular  exercises  in 
these  branches  should  be  conducted  whenever  the  district  board 
is  willing,  the  teacher  is  competent,  and  the  ordinary  work  of 
the  school  will  not  be  impaired  thereby.  It  is  recommended 
that  oral  lessons  in  morals  and  manners  and  in  the  elements  of 
some  of  the  natural  sciences  be  presented  in  the  general  exer- 
cises throughout  the  course,  whenever  this  can  be  done  to  the 
advantage  of  the  pupils. 

The  attempt  made  is  to  adapt  the  instruction  in  the  various 
branches  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  in  attendance  upon  the  dis- 
trict schools  and  to  the  general  conditions  under  which  these 
schools  are  organized  and  managed.  There  is  kept  constantly 
in  mind  the  effort  of  the  past  few  years  in  teachers'  institutes 
and  normal  schools  to  furnish  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
elementary  studies,  and  of  suitable  methods  for  teaching  the 
different  subjects.  Without  doubt  the  state  will  depend  upon 
these  agencies  for  the  same  service  for  several  years  to  come. 


GENERAL  'SUGGESTIONS.  9 

A  period  of  nine  years  is  usually  required  for  a  child  in  rural 
schools  to  gain  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  common  branches.  The 
brighter  pupils  may  accomplish  this  work  in  less  time,  while 
the  others  will  be  occupied  for  a  longer  period.  A  very  large 
percentage  of  the  children  in  the  state  receive,  before  they  reach 
sixteen  years  of  age,  all  the  culture  which  they  ever  obtain  in 
the  schools.  The  plan  herein  adopted  is  to  group  the  studies 
of  the  course  into  large  divisions,  each  of  which  can  be  mastered 
by  the  pupils  in  three  years,  on  an  average.  It  would  not  be 
desirable,  if  it  were  possible,  to  draw  an  arbitrary  line  separat- 
ing with  precision  all  the  work  suitable  for  primary  pupils 
from  that  of  an  intermediate  grade.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  a  reasonable  and  practical  division  is  made  herein,  that 
will  serve  as  a  general  guide,  though  in  individual  cases  some 
departures  from  these  lines  may  be  found  profitable.  On  this 
classification  the  pupils  in  the  country  schools  can  be  divided 
according  to  the  studies  which  they  are  pursuing,  into  three 
groups,  designated  as  PRIMARY,  MIDDLE  and  UPPER  FORM. 

The  principal  idea  of  the  course  is  to  grade  the  work  of  each 
pupil  to  a  proportionate  advance  in  each  of  the  branches  com- 
posing a  Form;  the  subordinate  idea  is  to  grade  the  school 
into  three  sections,  each  representing  but  one  form.  In  other 
words  a  "Form"  is  a  body  of  related  work,  and  is  not  a  group 
of  pupils.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  gradation  to  regulate 
one  pupil's  progress  by  that  of  another,  but  to  require  each 
pupil  to  make  equal  progress  in  all  the  branches.  The  course 
shows  how  much  geography  or  language  a  boy  should  know 
when  he  has  acquired  a  certain  knowledge  of  arithmetic.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  as  each  Form  comprises  several 
classes,  all  pupils  of  a  Form  may  neither  enter  nor  leave  it  at 
one  time.  The  promotion  of  each  pupil  will  depend  upon  his 
ability,  industry  and  regularity  of  attendance.  At  the  same 
time,  the  skillful  teacher  will  be  able  to  preserve  reasonable 
uniformity  in  the  progress  of  all  the  pupils  and  to  maintain 
proper  classification.  In  response  to  request  some  effort  has 
been  made  to  indicate  work  by  years. 


10  MANUAL  OF   TIEB  ELKMEJS  TAEY   COURSE   OF  STUDY. 


READING. 


I.  Fundamental  things  for  teachers  to  consider. 

1.  The  child's  mental  equipment  for  school. 

When  a  child  enters  school  he  has  a  store  of  ideas,  and  a 
vocabulary  by  means  of  which  he  expresses  his  ideas,  and 
understands  to  a  limited  extent  the  spoken  language  of  others. 
The  amount  of  these  mental  possessions  depends  chiefly  upon 
the  child's  surroundings, — that  is  upon  his  parents,  his  asso- 
ciates, his  home  and  its  natural  situation,  all  included  under  the 
word  environment. 

References:  King:  Psychology  of  Child  Development,  Ch. 
XVI. 

Carpenter,  Baker  and  Scott:  The  Teaching  of  English,  pp. 
64-65. 

Parker:  Talks  on  Pedagogics,  p.  16-17;  185. 

Arnold:  Reading:  How  to  Teach  It,  pp.  58-61. 

2.  The  child's  hearing  and  speaking-vocabulary. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  average  child  of  six  years  is 
able  to  use  from  six  hundred  to  eight  hundred  words, — his 
speaking  vocabulary;  and  is  able  to  understand  when  heard 
four  or  five  times  as  many, — his  hearing  vocabulary.  He  has 
learned,  when  he  enters  school,  more  of  language  than  he  ever 
again  can  learn  in  the  same  time.  It  may  be  well  to  stop  and 
inquire  how  it  was  done.  Can  we  get  at  the  secret  of  the  suc- 
cess of  tiie  natural  home  process?  And  can  the  school  use 
the  same  or  similar  methods? 

Parker:  Talks  on  Pedagogics,  p.  312. 


READING.  11 

8.  First,  how  did  he  get  his  hearing-vocabulary? 

The  child  begins  to  hear  language  long  before  he  begins  to 
speak.  His  hearing  vocabulary,  referred  to  in  2,  he  learned 
naturally,  which  means  that  he  learned  it  according  to  the 
fundamental  law  of  his  mental  action.  The  mother  was  acting 
in  conformity  with  this  law,  (law  of  contiguity)  when,  putting 
a  spoon  into  the  child's  hand,  she  spoke  the  word  "  spoon." 
The  seeing  and  the  feeling  of  the  spoon,  (the  starting  points  of 
the  idea),  and  the  namr,  hoard  in  connection  with  these  sensa- 
tions, became  associated  in  the  child's  mind.  Repetitions  of 
this  experience  finally  made  the  association  permanent  so  that 
one  form  of  activity  suggested  the  other:  that  is,  either  the 
memory  image  of  the  spoon  or  the  sight  of  it,  called  up  or  sug- 
gested the  spoken  word;  and  the  spoken  word  suggested  the 
idea.  Now  the  word  has  come  to  perform  its  function;  it  calls 
up  its  appropriate  activity, — it  is  the  "  sign  of  the  idea."  In 
this  way  before  he  entered  school,  v;as  the  entire  hearing- 
vocabulary  of  the  child  built  up,  and  in  this  way  will  it  con- 
tinue to  grow.  All  words,  if  of  any  value  to  the  child,  must  be 
learned  in  connection  with  the  objects  for  which  they  stand. 

Ilinsdale:  Teaching  the  Language  Arts,  Ch.  VI. 

Tracy:  Psychology  of  Childhood,  Ch.  V. 

Parker:  Talks  on  Pedagogics,  p.  180-185. 

4-.   Second,  how  did  he  get  his  speaking-vocabularyr 

Acting  according  to  his  instinct  to  imitate  those  around 
him,  he  learned  by  repeated  efforts  to  make  his  organs  of 
speech  say  the  words.  He  will  learn  to  sa'y  words  as  he  has 
heard  them;  he  will  form  good  habits  of  language  or  bad,  ac- 
cording as  he  hears  it  in  trie  home  and  among  his  associates. 
Whether  good  or  bad,  these  habits  of  language  like  all  early 
impressions  are  strong,  it  being  well  nigh  impossible  later  in 
life,  even  under  the  best  teaching,  wholly  to  eradicate  them. 

Hinsdale:  Teaching  the  Language  Arts,  p.  39. 

Carpenter,  Baker  and  Scott:  The  Teaching  of  English,  pp. 
111!,  113,  114. 


MANUAL  OF   THE    ELEMENTARY   COLIUS.B  OF   STUDY. 

6.   What  the  school  is  to  do. 

It  will  now  be  understood  what  is  meant  by  saying  that 
when  a  child  enters  school  he  knows  certain  words  in  two 
ways:  he  has  the  auditory  image  r.nd  the  vocal-image  of  these 
words,  and  both  are  associated  with  ideas,  so  that  through 
these  words,  he  both  understands  and  expresses  thought. 
The  school  must  teach  him  to  know  these  words  in  two  other 
ways,  by  means  of  which  he  may  have  another  way  of  getting 
and  another  way  of  expressing  thought.  The  eye  must  now 
share  with  the  ear,  the  work  of  thought-getting  a.nd  the  hand 
share  with  the  mouth,  the  work  of  thought-expressing.  He 
must  learn  to  read  and  write. 

Salisbury:  The  Theory  of  Teaching,  pp.  103-107. 

Titchener:  Primer  of  Psychology,  Ch.  V1J. 

6.  Learning  to  read  compared  with  learning  to  hear  language. 
In  teaching  the  child  to  read,  the  same  method  may  be  em- 
ployed that  the  parent  used  in  helping  him  to  get  his  hearing 
vocabulary.     (Sec.  3.)     The  parent  did  not  begin  to  teach  the 
child  to  hear  language  by  dividing  the  oral  word  into  its  com- 
ponent parts;  so  the  teacher  need  not  begin  to  teach  the  child 
to  read  the  language  by  dividing  the  written  word  into  its 
component  parts.     The  child  does  not  need  to  "  know  his  let- 
ters" in  order  to  learn  to  read.     The  teacher  starts  with  some 
familiar  thought  or  idea  which  the  child  can  and  has  expressed 
in  oral  language,  and  lets  him  see  the  same  expressed  in  clear 
script  upon  the  board.     Repetitions  of  the  association  of  words 
and  their  meaning  finally  make  the  association  permanent  so 
that  at  the  sight  of  the  words,  their  appropriate  activities  are 
called  up.      The  written  word  has  become  the  "  sign  of  an 
idea."     The  child  has  begun  to  read. 

Hinsdale:  Teaching  the  Language  Arts,  pp.  88-90. 

7.  Learning  to  write  compared  with  learning  to  speak. 

In  teaching  the  child  to  write,  as  in  teaching  him  to  ppenk, 
(Sec.  4),  imitation  does  its  work.  By  repeated  efforts  he  learns 
to  coordinate  his  muscles  to  make  the  letter-forms  he  sees. 


BEADING.  13 

Fortunate  is  the  child  who  sees  from  the  start  good  writing, 
Good  writing  for  children  is  large,  round,  vertical  or  semi-ver- 
tical, and  near  to  print  in  appearance. 

Chubb:  The  Teaching  of  English,  p.  73. 

Carpenter,  Baker  and  Scott:  The  Teaching  of  English,  p, 
117. 

8.  The  importance  of  attention. 

In  learning  words  in  the  four  ways  already  mentioned 
there  is  one  condition  that  always  determines  the  ease  and 
readiness  with  which  the  different  associations  are  fixed  in  the 
memory.  This  condition  is  the  degree  of  attention.  The  greater 
the  attention  the  fewer  the  repetitions  needed  to  fix  an  associa- 
tion. Hence  in  teaching^  the  attention  of  the  pupil  is  the  first 
thing  to  strive  for. 

Parker:  Talks  on  Pedagogics,  Ch.  VI. 

Titchener:  Primer  of  Psychology,  Ch.  V. 

9.  Relation  of  interest  and  attention. 

Attention  is  bound  up  with  interest.  The  thing  that  the 
child  attends  to  is  the  thing  that  directly  interests  him.  The 
interesting  thing  is  the  thing  that  attracts  the  attention.  When 
one  of  these  appears  the  other  appears  with  it, — they  are  the 
two  sides  of  one  experience. 

Titchener:  Primer  of  Psychology,  pp.  81,  82. 

Salisbury:  The  Theory  of  Teaching,  Chap.  XVI. 

10.  The  dominant  interest  of  children. 

Interest  in  activity  of  some  kind  is  the  predominant  interest 
of  children.  Varied  and  continual  activity,  mental  and  physi- 
cal, has  characterized  the  first  wonderful  six  years  of  his  life. 
Activity  must  continue  after  he  enters  school,  or  stupidity  will 
result.  It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  so  direct  the  child's 
activities,  that  through  them  he  is  interested,  and  therefore  at- 
tends to  the  matters  which  the  school  has  for  its  especial  ends, 
among  which  teaching  the  child  to  read  is  of  first  importance. 

Parker:  Talks  on  Pedagogics,  pp.  20-24. 


li  MAXUAL   OF   THE   ELEMEJSTAKY    (XHJIiSE   OF   STUUY. 

II.    Beginning  Beading. 

11.  General  description  of  good  method. 

The  teacher  who  has  clearly  realized  the  full  meaning  of 
these  fundamental  points  has  made  some  progress  in  learning 
how  to  teach  reading.  All  methods  of  teaching  reading  are 
good  that  recognize  from  the  start  the  important  truth  that 
teaching  reading  is  teaching  children  to  get  thought  from  writ- 
ten or  printed  sentences;  and  to  give  this  thought  to  others. 
Methods  have  been  successful  in  their  operation,  when  they 
have  established  in  children  the  habit  of  looking  through 
words  to  the  ideas  back  of  them,  and  of  not  being  satisfied 
unless  the  sentences  yield  some  thought  to  them;  and,  further, 
of  never  thinking  they  can  read  orally,  that  is,  attempt  to  give 
the  thought  of  the  written  or  printed  sentence  to  others,  till 
they,  themselves,  have  the  thought  to  give. 

12.  The  needs  of  foreign-speaking  children. 

Many  of  the  children  who  must  be  taught  to  read  English 
in  the  schools  of  Wisconsin,  come  to  school  understanding 
and  using  only  a  foreign  language  or  but  little  English.  Be- 
fore they  can  be  taught  to  read  English,  they  must  be  taught 
to  talk  English, — at  least  enough  English  to  understand  the 
sentences  which  the  teacher  is  to  make  the  basis  of  her  first 
work  in  reading.  Foreign-speaking  children  easily  form  asso- 
ciations between  the  words  as  pronounced  by  the  teacher  and 
their  written  or  printed  form,  and  are  allowed  to  call  words 
from  the  book,  and  think  they  are  reading.  They  too,  must 
be  made  to  understand  from  the  first  that  reading  is  getting 
thought.  The  method  is  practically  the  same  for  all  children, 
English-speaking  or  foreign-speaking.  The  chief  difference  in 
the  treatment  of  these  two  classes  is  the  much  greater  amount 
of  preliminary  language  work  needed  by  the  latter  to  prepare 
him  for  the  reading. 

13.  Oral  expression  the  basis  of  reading. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  all  reading  for  be- 
ginners must  be  based  upon  oral  expression.  There  should 


be  much  practice  in  free  expression  preparatory  to  the  read- 
ing. There  is  a  variety  of  interests  which  the  teacher  may 
use  to  stimulate  children  to  talk.  Several  of  them  are 
mentioned  here,  in  order  that  teachers  may  choose  those  best 
suited  to  their  need;  also  to  suggest  ways  of  changing  method 
and  thus  preventing  monotony.  Reading  matter  based  on  oral 
language  may  be  secured  by  means  of: — 

a)  Conversations,  which  should  relate  to  the  home  life  of  the 
child,  such  as  his  pets,  the  animals  he  knows,  etc.     A  reading 
lesson   coming  from   such  an  exercise  might  be   about  some 
one's  dog  "Jack".     Each  child  repeats  something  which  Jack's 
master  says   lie   could   do,   until  the  teacher  has  from  four  to 
six  statements  on  the  board.     Jack  can  jump.     Jack  can  play. 

Each  child  repeats  his  own  statement  pointing  to  the  line 
which  belongs  to  him.  Teacher  erases  the  last  word  of  each 
statement  and  supplies  another  as  given  by  some  pupil. 
Finally  all  last  words  are  erased  leaving  only  "  Jack  can"  which 
becomes  the  basis  for  the  next  lesson.  The  words  "Jack"  and 
"can"  are  placed  in  the  vocabulary  list  for  memorizing  and  re- 
view drill.  (See  course  for  first  year.) 

b)  Stories  commonly  known  by  children  and  loved  by  them, 
such  as  the  "Three  Pigs",  or  "Jack  and  the  Beanstalk."  From 
the  oral  expression  of  the  story  by  the  child,  short  statements 
are  selected  for  the  board.     This  is  better  for  English-speaking 
than  for  foreign-speaking  children  as  is  the  following: 

c)  Mother  goose  jingles,   such  as,  "I  had    a    little  pony." 
"Rock-a-by,  baby." 

d)  Collection  of  interesting  things,  as  toys,  bright  objects, 
fruit,  etc.     Out  of  play  with  these  and  the  resulting  conversa- 
tion, sentences  for  the  board  are  formed.     The  idioms  "I  see", 
"She  sees",  "He  sees",  "That  is",  "I  have",  "We  have"  may 
be  taught  from  these,  and  a  great  variety  of  sentences  built 
up.      This   is    the   best   way  to  begin  with   foreign-speaking 
children. 

e)  Directions  and  commands.  These  may  need  for  their  exe- 
cution a  collection  of  objects.     The  directions  are  at  first  given 


16  MANUAL,  OF    T1IE   EL£,ME.NTA.K,Y    COURSE   OF   blLDY. 

by  the  children  to  one  another,  and  later  are  given  by  the 
chalk.  This  way  of  using  directed  activity  as  a  means  to 
teach  reading  is  described  more  fully  in  15.  It  can  be  used 
with  foreign-speaking  children,  and  is  very  helpful  in  teaching 
them  to  understand  English.  If  this  method  is  followed  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  others,  the  pupil  is  deprived  of  experience 
with  sentences  arranged  in  logical  order,  which  he  needs  be- 
fore taking  up  the  book,  and  which  is  given  by  using  the 
means  suggested  in  a,  6,  and  c. 

f)  Pictures.  The  examination  and  discussion  of  the  picture, 
becomes  the  source  of  the  sentences  used  for  the  reading 
lesson. 

14.   Simple  apparatus  and  its  great  value. 

The  apparatus  needed  to  teach  reading,  other  than  that  men- 
tioned in  13,  is  as  follows: 

a)  A  blackboard.     The  first  reading  is  entirely  done  from 
words  and  sentences  written  upon  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher 
as  they  are  spoken  by  the  children.     There  is  no  need  o/  the 
teacher  printing  words  or  sentences;  the  child  can  just  as  easily 
learn  to  read  writing  as  printing. 

b)  Manila  paper.     This  paper  of  postal -card   weight  can  be 
bought  of  any  dealer  at  five  cents  a  square  yard;  a  heavier 
quality  costs  eight  cents  a  square  yard. 

c)  A  shading  pen,  or  a  black  crayon  for  making  letters  with 
broad  strokes  that  may  be  seen  across  the  room.     (Get  black 
"Standard  Checking"  crayon,  No.  31.) 

d)  Colored  crayon  for  teacher's  blackboard  illustrations. 

e)  A  common  window  shade  with  a  spring  roller.     This  is 
to  be  fastened  to  wood  work  above  the  blackboard,  and  used  to 
cover  lessons  written  on  board  for  sight  reading. 

f)  Directions. 

(1)  A  square  yard  of  manila  paper  will  cut  most  eco- 
nomically into  strips  18  inches  by  3^-  inches  and 
will  make  twenty  strips  of  this  size.  These  are 
to  contain  the  sentences  as  fast  as  they  begin  to 
be  known  by  the  pupils.  The  sentences  should 


BEADING.  1 7 

be  written  with  the  shading  pen,  or  hlack  crayon, 
the  teacher  taking  great  pains  to  make  her  writ- 
ing simple,  round,  and  free  from  all  flourishes  or 
useless  lines.  (Find  a  good  copy  in  some  system 
of  vertical  or  semi-vertical  writing  books,  and  fol- 
low it  faithfully.)  If  a  larger  hand  writing  is 
wanted  than  that  suited  to  strips  of  the  size 
named,  cut  the  strips  28  inches  by  4J-  inches. 

(2)  Cut  some   of  the  manila  board  into  cards,  7  inches 

by  4i  inches.  It  will  be  seen  that  one  square 
yard  will  make  forty  such  cards.  Upon  these  the 
words  which  pupils  have  had  in  their  reading  and 
which  the  teacher  desires  to  have  retained  in  mem- 
ory, are  to  be  written,  that  they  may  always  be 
ready  for  review. 

(3)  Others  of  the  cards  can  be  used  for  the  phonograms, 

as  the  child  learns  them.  (By  the  word  phono- 
gram is  meant  any  representation  of  a  sound,  either 
simple,  as  /",  or  compound,  as  ight.) 

(4)  If  any  pieces  are  left,  they  can    be  cut  into  small 

cards  about  1  by  i  inch.  These  are  for  sen- 
tence building  by  the  pupils  at  their  seats.  The 
quickest  and  best  way  to  make  these  small  cards 
is  this:  Take  a  piece  of  manila  board,  and 
mark  it  off  with  a  pencil  into  spaces  1  by  i  inch. 
In  the  spaces  write  with  pen  and  ink  the  words  as 
they  are  learned.  Make  at  least  as  many  dupli- 
cates of  this  sheet  as  you  have  pupils.  Cut  up 
the  sheets.  Put  each  full  set  of  words,  with  a 
number  of  duplicates,  into  an  envelope  or  a  spool 
box,  upon  which  you  have  written  the  child's 
name.  Add  to  these  sets  as  the  list  grows.  Words 
tint  begin  with  capitals  in  the  sentences  given  on 
the  blackboard,  or  strips,  should  appear  in  the 
same  form  on  the  cards.  The  word  with  the 
small  initial  letter  (if  it  is  not  a  proper  noun) 
can  be  given  later. 
3— C. 


IS  .MAXUAI,   OF    THE    ELEMENTARY    COU*RSE   OF   STUDY. 

(5)  This  outfit  of  cards,  material  for  which  can  be 
bought  for  a  quarter  of  a  dollar,  is  of  greater  value 
to  the  teacher  of  reading  than  the  most  expensive 
chart.  Since  the  teacher  can  change  the  order  in 
which  the  words  and  sentences  are  to  appear, 
children  soon  see  that  they  must  be  alert  and 
attentive.  Reading  from  the  cards  requires  a  real 
discrimination  of  word  forms,  not  a  memorized 
association  of  words  with  pictures,  or  of  words  in 
a  fixed  series. 

15.  Description  of   method  of  starting  children   in    reading. 
(See  e  in  section  13.) 

a)  The  teacher  finds  out  by  conversing  with  them  something 
>f  the  exp3rienees  and  interests  of  her  primary  class,  and  en- 
leavors  in  every  way  possible  to  put  them  in  a  responsive  at- 
titude towards  her. 

b)  She  selects  some  simple  act  as  tossing  a  ball,  and  she  anil 
her  class  engage  in  the  game.     Each  child  takes  his  turn  at 
giving  the  command  to  the  others:     "Toss  the  ball." 

c)  "Now  the  chalk  will  have  its  turn  in  telling  you  what  to 
<lo."     While  all  eyes  are  watching  her  hand,  the  teacher  writes 
r.ipi  lly  in  large,  round  script,  "Toss  the  ball." 

d)  She   writes   the   sentence  several  times   telling  them  to 
watch  how  her  hand  does  it.     She  calls  on  different  children  to 
do  what  the  sentence  says. 

e)  In  the  next  exercise  she  bounds  the  ball  and  writes  as  be- 
fore.    Powers  of  discrimination   begin  to  be   exercised.     She 
helps  by  calling  attention  to  the  words  "Bound"  and  "Toss" 
and  showing  difference  in  the  way  they  are  made. 

f)  In  a  following  exercise  the   pupils   find   the  ball  on  the 
desk.     The  teacher  writes  one  of  the  sentences    already  given 
and  asks,    "Who  can  do  what  the  sentence  tells   you  to  do?" 
When  in  this  or  some  future  exercise  a  child  steps  to  the  desk 
and  gets  the  ball  and  performs  the  act  called  for,  he  has  read 
the  sentence.     She  writes  the  other  sentence  and   has   the  act 
performed.     Erases  and  repeats. 


KEADIAU.  10 

g)  Otlier  objects  are  introduced  and  other  sentences  follow, 
as,  "Open  the  umbrella,"  "Close  the  umbrella,"  "Open  the 
red  box,"  "Open  the  black  box,"  etc.  In  selecting  the  nouns 
for  this  stage  of  the  work,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  those 
that  are  similar  in  form,  so  that  too  close  discrimination  will 
not  be  demanded.  The  same  words  are  used  in  different  sen- 
tences. 

h)  As  soon  as  the  children  are  really  for  it,  the  teacher  will 
have  them  use  their  seat  period  in  sentence  building  with  the 
word  cards.  She  will  give  each  child  several  cards,  containing 
the  words  already  used,  as  "Toss"  and  "Bound"  and  the 
phrase  "the  ball,"  telling  them  to  go  to  their  seats  and  try  to 
put  them  together  to  look  like  the  sentences  on  the  board. 
Section  14. 

i)  As  the  children  begin  to  show  some  power  in  the  reading 
of  the  sentences,  the  teacher  will  write  them  upon  the  strips. 
(Sec.  14.)  The  drill  exercise  now  consists  in  showing  the  class 
these  sentences  one  after  the  other  in  ever  varying  order,  and 
calling  upon  the  children  to  do  what  is  called  for. 

j)  Although  many  exercises  are  given  in  which  the  children 
read  the  sentences  without  speaking  the  words,  they  should 
sometimes  be  called  upon  to  tell  what  familiar  sentences  say 
—that  is  to  read  orally.  The  expression  will  probably  be 
natural. 

k)  The  names  of  the  children  are  early  introduced,  and  used 
in  this  way  and  any  other  that  may  be  suggested:  Teacher,— 
"This  child,"  (writing  the  name  Charlie)  "may  do  this," 
(writing,  "wave  the  flag.")  Their  names,  as  perfectly  written 
as  possible  should  be  placed  on  a  large  sheet  of  paper,  hung 
where  the  children  can  see  it. 

1)  The  declarative  form  of  the  sentence  may  be  introduced, 
using  the  same  nouns;  as,  "I  have  the  flag,"  "I  see  the  flag." 
The  idioms  "I  have,"  "I  see,"  and  "I  can,"  furnish  the  foun- 
dation of  many  sentences,  as  do  those  introducing  the  other  pro- 
noun as  "He  has,"  "He  can,"  "He  sees,"  etc.  This  form  of 
sentence  can  be  made  more  interesting,  and  as  a  thorough  test  oi 


20  MANUAL,  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   COtTRSE  OF   STUD^. 

real  reading  as  the  imperative  by  the  use  of  the  simple  device 
of  "making  them  true." 

Illustration:  Teacher  writes  the  sentence  "I  have  the 
penny,"  and  asks  some  one  to  make  it  true.  The  child  who 
can  read  the  sentence  will  take  the  penny  from  the  collection  of 
objects, — a  test  that  he  is  able  to  get  thought  from  the  written 
words.  If  the  teacher  writes  the  sentence,  "The  apple  is  on 
the  desk,"  the  child  shows  that  he  has  read  it  by  putting  the 
apple  on  the  desk.  If  the  phonic  exercises  suggested  in  20 
are  going  on,  the  words  selected  for  the  reading  should  contain 
as  many  as  possible  of  the  phonograms  being  drilled  on  there. 

m)  While  this  work  with  sentences  has  been  going  on,  the 
teacher  has  called  the  child's  attention  frequently  to  words. 
The  sentence  building  out  of  the  word-cards  has  also  interested 
the  pupils  in  words.  As  soon  as  children  have  discovered  that 
sentences  are  made  up  of  words,  which  they  can  be  brought 
to  do  in  a  week  or  two,  then  words  become  objects  of  attention. 
Now  word  drills  are  part  of  the  daily  exercise.  The  words  are 
shown  for  a  moment,  and  pronounced  by  pupils  in  succession. 
The  child  has  now  a  motive  for  learning  words,  because  he 
readily  sees  that  the  more  words  he  knows  the  more  sentences 
he  can  read;  and  the  more  he  can  read,  the  more  he  can  do:  and 
activity  of  some  sort  is  his  greatest  desire.  The  word  method 
has  now  joined  hands  with  the  sentence  method  to  work  for 
the  child's  progress.  The  words  the,  a  and  an  should  not  be 
taught  as  separate  words,  but  always  in  connection  with  the 
words  which  they  modify,  and  pronounced  as  the  unaccented 
syllable  of  that  word,  a  ball,  the  flaq,  an  apple. 

n)  While  this  has  been  going  on,  another  purpose  of  the 
teacher  has  begun  to  operate.  She  has  begun  in  a  natural, 
easy  way  to  train  the  ears  of  her  pupils  to  hear  the  elementary 
sounds  in  words.  For  instance,  she  may  spell  by  sound,  the 
names  of  objects,  and  ask  the  child  to  find  them.  She  may 
spell  the  names  of  the  children  of  whom  the  requests  are  made, 
as  "J-a-m-s  (giving  the  sounds  of  the  word,  somewhat  separated) 
may  close  the  door."  She  has  them  think  about  the  sounds 
that  words  begin  with,  asking,  "What  sound  does  the  name  of 


BEADING.  21 

this  begin  with?"  pointing  to  an  object;  or,  pointing  to  the  written 
word  on  the  board,  "What  sound  does  this  word  begin  with?" 
"What  sound  does  you  name  begin  with?"  All  this  is  done  to 
lead  children  to  understand  that  spoken  words  are  made  up  of 
sounds,  and  that  the  letters  in  the  written  words  stand  for 
these  sounds.  As  soon  as  this  is  understood,  then  the  sounds 
of  the  letters  become  objects  of  attention.  (Sections  20  and  24, 
also  First  year  d.)  The  pupil  now  has  a  motive  for  learning 
the  sounds,  because  he  sees  that  by  knowing  "what  letters 
say,"  he  can  make  out  words  better,  and  knowing  words  he  can 
read  sentences.  The  phonic  method  has  now  joined  hands 
witli  tne  other  two,  making  a  strong  trio  to  aid  the  child  in 
the  mastery  of  this  all-important  art.  As  soon  as  the  pupil  has 
found  out  that  he  can  do  things,  a  stimulus  is  afforded  that  re- 
sults in  a  great  strengthening  of  application,  concentration  ^nd 
self-control, 
o)  Summary  of  the  practical  advantages  of  this  method. 

(1)  The  pupils  begin  to  read' at  once,  and  thus  time  is 

saved. 

(2)  From  the  very  start,  reading  means  what  it  should, 

the  getting  of  thought,  not  the  calling  of  words. 
Right  habit  is  begun. 

(3)  They  have  been  started  rightly  in  oral  reading;  for 

they  have  been  obliged  to  get  the  thought  of  the 
whole  sentence  before  being  allowed  to  say  it. 

(4)  Right  habits  of  expression  are  started;  for  since  the 

thought  is  clearly  understood  and  felt  the  oral 

reading  will  be  natural  and  easy. 
(•}}  They  have  had  some  practice  in  taking  in  a  number 

of   words   at    a   glance,  which  power,   developed 

further,  will  help  to  make  them  fluent  readers. 
(0)  They  have  begun  the  mastery  of  phonics  which  i* 

the  means  to  self-help  in  getting  new  words. 

I  0.  Time  needed  for  the  work  just  described. 

The  time  needed  for  all  this  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the 
maturity  and  general  ability  of  the  children,  and  with  the  skill 


22  MANUAL   OF    THE    EI-EMENTARY    COURSE   OP    STUDY. 

of  the  teachers.  Children  can  profitably  do  all  their  reading 
from  the  blackboard  and  the  cards  for  a  period  of  from  two  to 
four  months,  according  to  the  maturity  of  the  pupil.  Primary 
teachers  advise  keeping  children  at  this  work  until  they  can 
execute  the  commands  or  "make  true"  the  statements  written 
on  twenty-five  cards,  the  oral  reading  of  the  same  following  as 
a  natural  consequence.  Since  they  will  also  know  separately 
the  elements  of  these  twenty-five  sentences,  they  can  in  the 
same  time  learn  to  read  from  the  blackboard  many  more  sen- 
tences containing  the  same  elements  arranged  differently.  For 
example:  The  sentence  on  the  card  is,  "The  red  box  is  on  the 
table".  In  another  is  the  phrase,  "on  the  chair".  A  vari- 
ation for  blackboard  drill  would  be  the  sentence,  "the  red  box 
is  on  the  chair."  Variety  of  treatment  is  a  strong  factor  in 
securing  and  retaining  interest,  and  a  teacher  would  do  well  to 
try  all  the  means  suggested  in  13.  Some  work  calling  for  the 
orderly  arrangement  of  sentences,  as  the  story  or  description 
of  a  pet  should  be  given  in  preparation  for  the  book. 

17.   Preparation  for  the  book. 

Before  reading  from  a  book  can  be  profitably  introduced,  the 
pupil  must  be  able  to  speak  in  clear,  intelligible  English.  It 
is  hoped  that  when  ready  for  the  book,  all  pupils  may  have  the 
inviting  prospect  of  a  good  one.  There  is  really,  in  a  majority 
of  cases,  no  valid  excuse  for  anything  else.  Readers  abound, 
beautiful  in  their  general  makeup,  and  filled  with  pictures  and 
reading  matter,  adapted  to  children's  interests.  The  cost  of 
one  of  these  attractive  new  books  is  so  little  that  any  parent 
who  stops  to  consider  the  question  would  not  deny  his  child  the 
benefit  which  would  come  from  such  a  possession  so  cheaply 
bought. 

When  such  a  reader  is  in  prospect,  the  teacher  will  shape 
her  preliminary  work  so  as  to  prepare  her  pupils  for  using  it. 
The  words  and  sentences  occurring  on  the  first  pages  should 
be  introduced  for  blackboard  reading  and  drftl  along  with  the 
others.  When  this  is  done  the  transition  to  the  print  from 


23 

the  script  form  of  sentences  already  familiar,  will  be  readily 
made,  and  progress  in  the  book  be  more  rapid  and  satisfactory. 
The  phonic  work  also,  should  have  been  planned  somewhat 
towards  his  needs  in  getting  the  first  words  of  the  book;  or,  if 
the  book  has  a  carefully  worked  out  system  of  its  own,  the 
preliminary  work  should  have  started  the  pupils  in  the  mastery 
of  that  system. 

18.  The  transition  from  script  to  print. 

If  the  teacher's  writing  has  been  what  a  primary  teacher's 
should  be,  the  transition  from  script  to  print  will  not  be  dif- 
ficult; for  the  script  letters  free  from  flourishes  and  all  unnec- 
essary lines,  are  so  nearly  like  print  that  the  children,  know- 
ing the  former,  soon  learn  the  latter.  When  the  time  comes 
for  the  pupil  to  read  from  a  book,  the  teacher  writes  the  words 
or  sentences  on  the  board  in  the' familiar  form,  arranging  them 
as  they  are  in  the  book.  The  pupil  reads  the  sentence  on  the 
board  and  then  compares  the  sentence  in  the  book  with  it,  word 
for  word.  He  is  ajked  to  tell  what  the  sentence  on  the  board 
says  and  then  that  the  sentence  in  the  book  says  the  same 
thing.  It  will  be  necessary  to  put  the  entire  lesson  on  the  board 
only  a  few  times.  After  that,  only  parts  of  sentences  will  be 
troublesome,  or,  occasionally,  whole  sentences,  which  should 
then  be  written  on  the  board  and  worked  out  by  the  use  of 
phonics. 

19.  The  pointing  habit. 

The  pupil  should  not  be  allowed  to  point  to  the  words  as  he 
reads.*  He  should  do  as  the  method  described  will  start  him  in 
doing;  that  is,  take  in  the  sentence  at  a  glance  and  then  give 
the  thought.  Teachers  are  sometimes  seen  pointing  to  the 
words  of  the  book  or  words  on  the  blackboard  one  after  the 
other  and  having  the  child  call  them  in  succession,  also  allow- 
ing pupils  to  do  the  same  with  finger  or  pointer.  While  the 
child  may  use  his  finger  to  guide  his  eye  while  he  is  studying 
the  sentence  to  get  the  thought,  when  the  time  for  oral  reading 
comes,  he  is  to  give  the  thought,  smoothly  and  naturally,  and 


24  MANUAL  OF   THE   ELEMENTAKY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

not  merely  call  the  words  separately.     This  does  not   refer  to 
pointing  in  drill  exercises  upon  lists  of  words. 

20.  1  he  use  of  phonics. 

If  the  suggestions  made  in  sec.  15,  n,  have  been  carried  out 
the  pupil  will,  when  the  reader  is  taken  up,  know  a  number  of 
the  sounds  of  the  consonants,  occurring  in  the  words  they  used 
in  their  script  sentences.  It  is  easiest  with  little  children  to 
teach  sounds  in  connection  with  initial  letters.  He  has  learned 
that  some  of  the  letters  have  different  sounds  in  different  words. 
The  teacher  should  have  drilled  him  in  the  sounds  of  the  letters 
occurring  in  the  first  words  of  the  book.  This  knowledge 
should  be  constantly  applied.  Thus:  He  comes  to  the  word 
hand.  He  knows  the  phonogram  an,  and  the  sounds  of  h  and 
d.  (If  he  does  not  this  is  the  place  for  the  teacher  to  give  him 
these  sounds.)  He  puts  tli3  sound  d  after  an,  getting  and,  and 
then  prefixes  the  sound  of  h.  In  this  way  he  should  be  taught 
to  work  out  the  pronunciation  of  new  words,  a  process  he  learns 
to  do  very  rapidly  if  once  he  gets  started,  and  the  teacher 
knows,  herself,  how  to  make  the  sounds  of  all  letters,  dis- 
tinctly and  accurately,  and  keeps  up  a  short  drill  daily  upon 
phonograms  and  consonants.  In  this  work  concert  drills  are 
of  little  value.  (See  suggestions  in  14  and  24.) 

21.  "Learning  the  letters." 

During  the  first  weeks  the  teacher  will  sometimes  name  the 
letters  as  she  writes  words,  or  as  she  points  letters  out  in  the 
phonic  drill.  She  incidentally  calls  attention  to  the  character- 
istics of  letters.  Thus:  "Open  begins'with  a  round  o."  "See 
this  crooked  s,"  or  "this  tall  /,"  etc.  It  will  be  found  at  the 
end  of  a  few  weeks  that  the  children  have  picked  up  from  this 
incidental  mention,  the  names  of  many  of  the  letters.  The  let- 
ter names  should  all  be  recognized  by  the  end  of  the  first  year, 
since  the  pupil  is  to  begin  to  spoil  by  letter  in  the  second  year. 
Pupils  should  also  be  able  to  recite  the  alphabet  by  the  end  of 
the  first  year.  After  the  pupils  are  started  in  their  books, 
teacher  should  add  to  the  material  for  seat  work  for  each  child, 


25 

a  lot  of  small  cards  containing  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  both 
capitals  and  small  letters.  (Set  of  letters  can  bo  got  from 
Thomas  Charles  Co.,  Chicago.) 

'22.  Learning  to  write. 

A  child  should  begin  to  write  just  as  soon  as  the  impulse 
prompts  him  to  this  act;  that  is,  just  as  soon  as  he  can  and  will 
make  the  attempt.  The  writing  for  the  first  two  months  should 
be  on  the  blackboard  and  should  be  large  and  free.  If  the  de- 
mand for  accuracy  is  made  too  early,  it  is  likely  to  result  in  a 
cramped,  awkward  movement  that  persists  in  the  later  hand- 
writing. Control  of  the  arm  from  the  shoulder  should  be  the 
first  thing  aimed  at.  (See  course  for  lower  form.)  The  writ- 
ing at  the  seats,  beginning  later,  should  be  on  unruled  paper 
or  on  slates.  It  is  best  if  children  can  have  an  extra  largo  size 
of  lead  pencil  similar  to  those  known  as  the  editor's  pencil. 
This  will  prevent  cramping  of  the  fingers,  and  will  promote 
freedom  of  movement. 

Since  imitation  is  the  chief  factor  here  (Sec.  7),  the  example 
set  by  the  teacher,  both  as  to  freedom  of  movement  and  sim- 
plicity and  beauty  of  form,  will  determine  largely  how  her  pu- 
pils will  write.  All  the  writing  will  at  first  be  in  connect  ion 
with  the  reading:  the  words  and  sentences  attempted  by  the 
child  will  be  those  used  in  the  reading  exercise.  The  writing 
thus  aids  the  reading  by  making  the  letter  and  word-forms 
clearer,  and  by  quickening  the  power  to  perceive  differences 
and  resemblances.  If  the  teacher  has  written  her  small  word- 
cards  well,  the  sentences  built  out  of  them  by  the  child  will 
serve  him  as  copies  for  his  writing, — the  pupil  can  set  up  his 
own  copy. 

For  the  pedagogy  of  writing,  see  Parker:  Talks  on  Pedagog- 
ics, pp.  313-327. 

23.  Spelling. 

Spelling  during  the  first  year  is  largely  phonic  instead  of  by 
letter.  Regular  exercises  in  spelling  should  be  given  just  as 
soon  as  pupils  have  caught  the  idea  that  words  are  made  up  of 


20)  MAXTAL   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

sounds,  and  know  the  sounds  of  a  few  of  the  letters.  This  ex- 
ercise will  reinforce  the  reading  by  increasing  his  power  to  find 
out  words  for  himself  and  by  giving  him  practice  in  doing  it. 
Suggestions  for  this  work  are  given  in  sec.  24.  For  valuable 
and  varied  suggestions  upon  Primary  Reading,  see  Kellogg: 
Methods  of  Teaching  Primary  Reading  in  Ten-  Cities.  Ed. 
Pub.  Co. 

III.    Work  in  Phonics,  Articulation  and  Pronunciation— 
the  Tocal  Mechanics  of  Reading. 

24.  Instruction  and  suggestions  to  teachers. 

(NOTE.  These  suggestions  are  placed  here  instead  of  in  the 
course  for  the  primary  form,  because  this  work  may  profitably 
be  done  by  middle  and  upper  form  pupils,  if  the  teacher  finds 
that  this  important  part  of  their  training  has  been  previously 
neglected.) 

a)  The  steps  in  teaching  the  sounds  of  the  letters  are: — 

(1)  Analysis  of  the  spoken  word  into  its  separate  sounds, 

(Sec.  15,  n), 

(2)  Analysis  of  the  written  or  printed  word  into  parts 

corresponding  to  these  sounds, 

(3)  The  association  of  the  sound  with  their  symbols. 

b)  Qualify  yourself  in  phonics. 

Unless  the  teacher  can  do  the  first  of  the  above,  and  can 
.nake  the  elementary  sounds  correctly  and  distinctly,  she  can- 
aot  do  this  important  part  of  her  work.  But  there  is  no  ex- 
cuse for  not  being  able  to  make  the  elementary  sounds  cor- 
rectly. Those  who  have  not  had  this  training,  in  their  own 
school-days,  can  teach  themselves.  First  turn  to  the  table  of 
consonants  in  the  Guide  to  Pronunciation  in  the  front  part  of 
the  International  Dictionary,  and  study  it.  Find  out  what  the 
names  in  the  table  mean.  To  teach  yourself  how  to  make  any 
consonant  sound,  pronounce  some  word  having  this  sound  as 
its  initial  one.  After  pronouncing  it  two  or  three  times  in  suc- 
cession, making  a  particular  effort  to  give  the  initial  sound 
distinctly,  start  a  fourth  time  to  pronounce  the  word  and  "cut 


READING.  27 

it  off"  after  the  first  sound  is  made.  You  now  have  the  ele- 
ment you  want.  Practice  it.  Proceed  in  this  way  until  you 
can  make  all  the  surd  and  sonant  sounds  given  in  the  table. 
Remember  that  the  sound  of  g  is  not  guh,  nor  of  d,  duh,  nor 
of  b,  buh.  Guh  is  no  more  the  right  sound  of  g,  than  gih,  or 
giih,  or  ggh.  The  sound  of  g  has  no  vowel  element  in  it.  It 
is  just  the  initial  sound  in  "get,"  or  "game."  After  getting 
the  consonants,  study  the  vowels. 

c)  A  daily  exercise  in  phonics  distinct  from  the  reading. 

In  most  of  the  best  primers  and  first  readers,  a  carefully 
worked  out  system  of  phonics  is  given.  Where  readers  must 
be  used  in  which  no  such  help  is  given,  the  suggestions  given 
for  phonics  and  word  building  in  course  for  first  year  should 
be  followed.  Illustration  of  method  is  also  given  in  15,  n. 
There  should  be  one  or  two  other  exorcises  in  phonics  each  day. 
[f  no  more  than  from  three  to  five  minutes  can  be  found  for 
this  exercise,  much  can  be  accomplished,  provided  the  teacher 
t)lans  for  it.  Here  the  teacher  should  endeavor  to  reinforce  the 
,vork  going  on  in  the  reading  class,  and  drill  upon  phonics  and 
vvord  building. 

d)  Teach  the  consonant  sounds  first. 

It  is  claimed  that  there  is  a  certain  sequence  of  ease  that 
should  be  observed  in  the  introduction  of  consonant  sounds. 
The  authors  of  readers  differ  as  to  what  this  sequence  is. 
Tracy,  (See  "Psych,  of  Childhood,  p.  149)  gives  the  following: 
b,  s,  k,  p,  h,  d,  in,  t,  w,  f,  n,  g,  1,  r,  sh,  th,  ch,  j,  y,  u,  v,  q. 
This  with  slight  modifications  is  adopted  here. 

e)  How  to  teach  the  consonant  sounds. 

Suppose  you  begin  with  b,  write  the  letter  on  the  board/ and 
tell  the  children  what  it  is,  giving  the  sound,  not  the  name. 
Practice  it  a  little  while  and  leave  it.  Find  a  moment  between 
classes,  when  the  attention  of  the  beginners  can  be  called  to  it, 
and  the  question  put,  "What  is  it?"  Next  teach  s.  Now  for  a 
day  or  two  keep  both  characters  on  the  board,  and  have  short 
drills  on  them.  Use  any  scraps  of  time  for  this.  Teach  k  in 
the  same  way,  and  show  them  the  other  letter  c,  which  some- 
times has  the  same  sound.  Drill  on  the  three.  Keep  on  in- 


28  \fATSTTTAT.  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

troducing  them  one  at  a  time  until  p,  h,  d,  n,  (instead  of  m  as 
given  by  Tracy)  and  t,  are  learned.  Write  the  letters,  with 
broad  lines  on  cards,  and  use  these  for  drills  instead  of  the 
blackboard.  (See  14.) 

f )  How  to  conduct  a  drill  exercise. 

Stand  before  the  class  and  show  a  card  to  each  child  in  order. 
If  he  does  not  answer  instant-ly,  say  "class,"  and  let  any  pupil 
give  it  who  can.  Do  not  be  discouraged  if  there  are  many  failures 
the  first  few  days.  You  will  find  your  pupils  brightening  up 
under  the  drill,  paying  better  attention,  and  soon  showing  de- 
cided progress.  It  will  not  take  a  minute  to  go  over  the  cards 
several  times  with  your  class.  Keep  the  drill  up  until  the 
eight  consonants  are  known  at  sight  by  most  if  not  all  of  your 
pupils.  You  will  find  that  this  exercise  has  done  much  more 
for  your  pupils  than  merely  to  teach  them  eight  phonograms. 

Cautions:  (1)  Be  sure  vou  know  how  to  give  the  right 
sound  of  every  phonogram  you  attempt  to 
teach. 

(2)  Do  not  teach  new  ones  while  those  previously 

introduced  are  not  well  known. 

(3)  Never  be  satisfied  with  anything  but  the  exact 

pronunciation  from  your  pupils. 

g)  Introduce  easy  compound  phonograms. 

The  following  are  selected  for  the  first,  because  of  their  ease, 
and  because  from  them  and  the  consonants  already  known  so 
many  familiar  words  can  be  built,  an,  at,  en,  et,  in,  it,  un,  ut. 
There  will  be  no  need  of  any  diacritical  marking.  Following 
the  general  plan  suggested  for  the  teaching  of  the  simple  pho- 
nograms, introduce  the  above,  and  drill  upon  them  until  they 
are  known.  Then  begm  word  building,  using  the  consonants. 
The  teacher  writes  pan,  covers  an  and  has  the  child  sound  p; 
covers  p  and  has  the  child  sound  an;  child  then  puts  the  two 
together.  Out  of  the  eight  syllables  and  eight  consonants 
given,  nearly  fifty  familiar  words  can  he  built.  Make  words  of 
other  phonograms  within  the  range  of  the  pupil's  present  ac- 
quirements, as  am,  ad,  ip. 


READING.  29 

h)  Teach  the  remaining  consonants  in  the  same  way,  as  fast 
as  the  work  can  be  thoroughly  done  and  no  faster.  Build  new 
words  from  them,  as  one  by  one  they  are  introduced,  and  teach 
new  compound  phonograms. 

i)  Teaching  the  long  vowels. 

Add  e  to  certain  words  selected  from  the  first  list,  as  hat, 
mat,  fat,  pin,  din,  tin,  win,  fin,  bit,  kit.  This  introduces  the 
long  sound  of  the  vowel,  and  shows  the  child  one  of  the  con- 
ditions indicating  this  sound.  No  marking  of  the  vowel  is 
necessary. 

j )  List  of  common  phonograms  out  of  which  hundreds  of 
words  can  be  built. 

(1)  Word  phonograms:  am,  and,  old,  all,  ant,  ink,  air, 

ear,  ash,  end,  ice,  ill,  edge,  out,  ought,  east,  utter, 
arrow,  oil,  ounce. 

(2)  Combinations  of  r,  which  are  difficult  to  analyze: 

ar  (share),  er  (her),  ir  (sir),  or  (for),  ur  (fur). 

(3)  ack,  eck,  ick,  ock;  atch,  etch,  itch,  otch;    ew,  ow. 

ang,  ing,  ong,  ung;  ight;  ay,  oy,  andoi;  tion,  ness, 
oat,  oad;  ound,  awl,  eel,  eal,  earn,  ance,  eeze,  ief, 
oop,  oast,  umble. 

(4)  Combinations    of  consonants    that   will   be  needed 

early,— bl,  cl,  fl,  gl,  pi,  si;  br,  cr,  dr,  fr,  gr,  pr, 
tr;  sc,  or  sk,  sm,  sn,  sp,  st. 
k)  Suggestions  for  exercises. 

Exercises  with  these  phonograms  take  many  interesting 
forms,  which  are  described  in  the  course  of  study  for  the  grades 
to  which  they  are  adapted.  If  pupils  in  higher  grades  than 
those  specified  have  not  had  this  work,  they  can  take  the  same 
exercises  with  profit. 

Arnold:  Reading;  How  to  teach  It,  pp.  70-85. 
1)  The  effects  of  these  exercises. 

(1)  These  word-building  exercises  have  their  first  effect 
upon  the  reading  by  making  clearer  to  children 
the  idea  of  classification,  that  is  of  "families"  01 


30  MANUAL   OF    THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE    OF   STUDY. 

types  of  words,  thus  increasing  their  power  to 
recognize  and  pronounce  new  words. 
(2)  The  next  effect  is  seen  in  the  power  to  spell.  These 
exercises  train  children's  ears  to  hear  the  sounds 
in  words,  and  knowing  the  symbols  of  these 
sounds,  the  correct  form  of  words,  that  are  at  all 
phonetic,  is  more  readily  mastered. 

Carpenter,  Baker  and  Scott:  The  teaching  of  Eng.,  pp.  109- 
112. 

m)  The  treatment  of  words  that  are  not  phonetic. 

There  are  many  words  whose  correct  pronunciation  and 
spelling  cannot  be  told  from  their  sounds,  such  as  through, 
tongue,  cough,  enough,  laugh,  where,  their.  Such  words  must 
be  mastered  by  sight.  The  teacher  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
classifying  the  words  that  occur  upon  any  page  of  the  reading 
lesson,  into  those  that  must  be  learned  by  sight,  and  those  that 
can  be  referred  to  some  phonetic  type.  Also  in  the  spelling 
lists  the  same  classification  will  indicate  to  pupils  where  the 
real  difficulties  lie. 

n)  Syllabication. 

The  importance  of  teaching  children  early  to  recognize  the 
syllables  in  a  word  is  frequently  not  appreciated  by  teachers. 
Dividing  a  word  into  its  syllables  is  putting  it  in  shape  to  be  mas- 
tered part  by  part.  The  best  method  of  indicating  syllables  is 
thought  to  be  that  of  unchrllninq  with  a  broken  line  as  here 
illustrated.  When  the  syllables  are  thus  made  known  to  the 
pupil  he  proceeds  to  get  the  pronunciation  of  the  word  syllable 
by  syllable.  Facility  is  soon  gained,  (by  the  third  year)  to  pro- 
nounce words  not  underlined,  the  pupil  making  the  mental 
division  of  the  word.  When  spelling  by  letters  is  begun, 
which  will  not  be  until  the  second  year,  syllables  are  indicated 
by  a  distinct  pause;  as,  "b-o-a-u-(pause>t-i-(pause)f-u-l,  beau- 
tiful." 

o)  It  is  not  to  be  thought  that  this  work  in  phonics  is  to  be 
limited  to  the  primary  form.  The  study  of  sounds  should  con- 
tinue through  the  middle  and  into  the  upper  form.  If  in  any 


HEADING.  ol 

form  a  child  hesitates  with  a  now  word,  refer  him  at  once  It. 
a  word  he  knows  of  the  same  type. 

25.  Imperfections  in  speech. 

a)  Imperfections  classified. 

(1)  Those  due  to  physical  defects. 

(a)  Defective  organs  of  speech. 

(b)  Defective  hearing. 

(c)  Defective  nervous  control  of    the    organs    of 

speech. 

(2)  Those  due  to  imitation  of  something  else  than  goo.l 

English. 

(a)  A  foreign  language  spoken  in  the  home. 

(b)  Dialects  peculiar  to  families  and  communities. 

(3)  Those  due  to  neglect  of  parents,  who  have  allowed 

bad  habits  to  become  fixed,  which  could  have  been 
prevented  if  attended  to  earlier,  as  to  give  the 
sound  of  d  for  g. 

(4)  Those  common  for  children, — lack  of  clearness  and 

precision  in  articulation. 

b)  The  duty  of  the  teacher. 

(1)  It  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher,  to  discover  as  soon  as 
possible  the  language  need  of  every  pupil,  young 
and  old,  and  proceed  to  minister  to  those  needs, 
as  wisely,  as  patiently  and  as  persistently  as  pos- 
sible. Daily  attention  must  be  given  to  clear' 
speaking. 

c)  Suggestions. 

(1)  Some  cases  coming  under  (1)  above,  are  cases  for 
the  physician  rather  than  the  teacher.  Class  1 
(b)  are  often  misjudged.  Make  sure  that  the  pu- 
pil whose  speech  is .  indistinct,  and  who  does  not 
improve  under  your  care,  is  not  deaf  before  you 
set  him  down  as  stupid.  Perhaps  the  best  place 
for  the  child  is  in  some  day-school  for  deaf.  Such 
cases  should  be  reported  to  the  county  superin- 
tendent. Class  1  (c)  stammerers,  can  often  be 


32  MANUAL  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY  -COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

helped  to  better  control  by  being  allowed  to  read 
and  recite  privately  to  teacher. 

Salisbury,  The  Theory  of  Teaching,  p.  83. 

(2)  As   imitation  has  made  the  speech  of  these  pupils 

(Class  2)  what  it  is,  so  it  will  continue  to  operate. 
Be  sure  that  you  set  a  good  model  as  to  tone,  pro- 
nunciation and  grammar.  Besides  these  influ- 
ences which  will  be  always  at  work,  whether  we 
think  of  it  or  not,  there  must  be  other  things 
done.  The  exercises  here  recommended  will  also 
benefit  classes  3  and  4.  The  teacher  should  know 
how  to  place  the  organs  of  speech  for  the  proper 
making  of  every  sound  (Sec.  24,  b),  so  as  to  be 
able  to  tell  the  pupils  what  to  do.  Have  pupils 
commit  to  memory  some  good  articulation  exer- 
cises and  practice  them.  One  or  two  good  exer- 
cises committed  to  memory,  and  hence  ready  to  be 
used  at  any  odd  moment  are  better  than  a  variety 
of  exercises  not  so  familiar.  The  following  exer- 
cise is  the  best  one  known  to  the  writer.  It  is  a 
combination  of  the  cognates  with  the  long  and 
short  sounds  of  the  vowels,  thus:  ba',-pa,  b£'-pa. 
be'-pe,  b&'-pS,  bi'-pl,  bf.-pi,  bu'-pu,  bti'pu,  boi-p<>i, 
bou-pou.  Change  the  accent  to  second  syllable: 
ba-pa',  etc. 

(3)  Prescriptions. 

(a)  For     the    foreign-speaking    child     who    has 

trouble  with  his  th's,  use  tha'-tha;  tha'-tha; 
etc.,  telling  him  to  attend  to  keeping  his 
tongue  out  between  his  front  teeth.  The 
pronunciation  of  twenty-four  syllables  with 
the  tongue  in  right  position  will  soon  make 
the  old  habit  yield  to  the  new. 

(b)  For  the  pupil  who  says  "wery"  for  very,  use 

the  cognates  v  and  f,  telling  the  pupil  to  put 
his  upper  teeth  on  the  lower  lip,  and  at- 


33 

tend  to  putting  it  tl.ore  rwh  of  the  twenty- 
four  times:  va'-iYi,  vfi'-U,  etc. 

(c)  For  the  lisper  use  the  cognates,  z  and   s:  /.a'- 

sa,  z£'-sa;  telling  the  pupil  to  shut  his  teeth, 
and  attend  to  keeping  his  tongue  inside 
them. 

(d)  For  the  pupil  who   says  "tan"  for  can,  and 

."does"  forgoes,  use  the  cognates  g  and  k, 
ga'-ka,  g&"-ka,  etc.,  having  the  pupils  turn 
the  tip  of  the  tongue  down  under  and  at- 
tend to  keeping  it  there  while  the  syllables 
are  said. 

that  these  are  vocal  gymnastics,  and  to  be  benefi- 
cial they  vnuot  be  carried  out  like  any  other  gymnastic  exercises, 
with  vigor  and  precision. 

(e)  To  strengthen  final  consonants,  other  exer- 

cises can  be  used  like,  ap,  ip,  ep,  op,  up, 
ad,  ed,  etc. 

U).  Phonetic  spelling  will  help  classes  (2),  (3)  and 
(4)  by  training  the  ear  to  catch  all  the  ele- 
ments there  are  in  words. 


IY.    Work   la   Thought-getting— the    Mental    Aspect  of 

Reading. 

(NOTE.  This  topic  applies  to  all  grades  and  forms.) 
Introduction.  Teachers  should  not  forget  that  the  chief  pur- 
pose in  giving  pupils  the  ability  to  recognize  words,  as  dis- 
cussed under  III,  is  to  enable  them  to  get  thought  from  the 
printed  page.  Words  are  the  signs  of  ideas.  It  is  only  when 
these  signs  perform  their  function  and  when  seen  call  up  in 
the  mind  their  appropriate  ideas,  that  a  person  is  reading. 
The  habit  of  thought-getting,  of  not  being  satisfied  unless  words 
yield  thought  is  the  most  important  habit  in  education.  It  is 
the  basis  of  all  profitable  study  of  books.  The  child  in  whom 
4—0. 


31      MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

that  habit  is  early  formed,  is  not  so  badly  off  if  circumstances 
stop  his  schooling  at  the  end  of  his  fourth  year,  as  happens  to 
half  the  children  who  enter  the  primary  grades  of  the  schools 
of  Wisconsin  and  other  states. 

Parker:     Talks  on  Pedagogics,  Ch.  IX. 

Clark:     How  to  teach  Reading,  Ch.  V. 

26.     Things  that  promote  thought-getting. 

a)  Right  methods  of  beginning: 

The  great  importance  of  forming  in  children  from  the  start 
the  habit  of  thinking,  that  is,  of  imagining,  or  picturing  what 
they  read,  makes  the  primary  teacher  a  factor  second  in  im- 
portance to  none  in  the  entire  school  history  of  any  individual. 
The  method  described  in  II  is  believed  to  be  one  that  will  lay 
the  foundation  for  this  habit. 

b)  Right  reading  matter. 

The  reading  matter  should  be  worth  the  attention  of  children. 
Suitable  and  interesting  thought  material  is  the  true  basis  of 
progress  in  reading.  This  demand  is  met  by  book  companies 
on  all  hands,  who  are  putting  out  new  readers,  which  furnish 
pure  elevating  literature  adapted  to  the  interests  of  child  life. 
It  is  the  business  of  teachers  to  know  about  these.  Parents 
and  school  boards  must  be  educated  up  to  a  belter  standard  in 
regard  to  quality  and  quantity  of  reading  books  for  their  child- 
ren and  teachers  have  a  work  to  do  right  here.  It  would  be 
thought  absurd  for  any  parent  to  oblige  his  children  to  read 
and  work  by  the  light  of  a  single  candle,  when  other  luminants 
are  easily  available.  Is  it  not  vastly  more  absurd  in  this  book- 
illuminated  age,  to  make  his  child  live  in  the  tallow-candle  age  of 
school  readers,  and  injure  his  mental  eye-sight  by  confinement 
to  one  book,  which  if  the  best,  is  not  enough. 

e)  Have  the  reading  matter  reasonably  easy  at  every  stage 
of  the  child's  progress. 

(1)  It  is  best  in  primary  grades,  not  to  read  one  reader 
to  the  end,  but  to  read  the  first  part  of  one  and  then 
of  another,  and  another,  the  easiest  of  course,  hav- 
ing been  chosen  for  the  first  effort.  Then  go  back 


35 


and  finish  the  first;  then  the  second,  and  so  on. 
Children  who  have  the  books  can  thus  read  four 
or  more  readers  a  year. 

(2)  Too  much  importance  must  not  be  attached  to  the 
number  of  the  reader  as  a  guide  to  its  proper 
place  in  your  school.  It  is  often  best  to  put  the 
more  difficult  first  readers,  or  the  last  part  of 
those  begun  in  the  first  year  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  year.  Also  in  the  third  year  to  pro- 
ceed in  the  same  way  with  second  and  third 
readers.  It  is  found  that  children  improve  much 
more  rapidly  with  this  arrangement  of  the  read- 
ing course,  for  the  reason  that  the  vocabulary  is 
not  so  difficult,  they  read  much  more,  and  enjoy 
reading,  and  the  important  habit  of  thought-get- 
ting at  every  stage  is  more  apt  to  be  promoted. 
If  after  careful  preparation  by  the  teacher,  (see 
"d"  and  "e"  following),  a  pupil  is  unable  to  read 
with  reasonable  smoothness,  the  reading  matter 
is  too  difficult. 
d)  A  preparatory  exercise,  adapted  in  length  and  charactei 

to   circumstance,     should   proceeds  the    oral    reading   in    ali 

forms. 

(1)  In  the  early  stage,  the   preparation  followed  by  the 

oral  reading,  precedes  sentence  by  sentence.  Sees. 
13,  15  and  28. 

(2)  Later  the  preparation  may  occupy  a  separate  period 

in  the  program.  When  the  pupil  has  reached  this 
stage  he  is  approaching  the  time  for  study.  The 
preparatory  exercise  should  have  taught  him 
what  "study"  means. 

(3)  In  the  third  stage,   growing  gradually  out  of   (2) 

there  is  first  the  preparatory  exercise;  second,  a 
time  for  independent  effort,  a  study  period;  third, 
a  chance  to  show  what  the  study  has  amounted 
to,  that  is,  to  read  orally  the  lesson  which  has 


36  MANUAL   OF   THE   EXEMENTAKY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

been  studied.  In  the  primary  grades  there  should 
be  at  least  these  two  exercises  daily  for  reading. 
In  higher  form  work,  they  may  be  on  successive 
days.  After  pupils  are  expected  to  study  by 
themselves,  this  preparatory  exercise  is  the  as- 
signment. It  must  precede  the  study  period,  and 
provide  for  it,  and  should  take  no  more  or  no  less 
time  than  is  needed  to  give  the  pupils  a  motive 
for  studying.  For  illustrative  exercises  see  sec- 
tion 27. 

e)  What  the  preparatory  exercises  should  do.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  get  thought  from  the  printed  page  unless  the  words 
stand  for  something  related  in  some  way  to  our  experience. 
Hence  the  preparatory  exercise  should:— 

(1)  Reveal  to  the  teacher,  through  questioning,   what 

the  pupils  already  know  about  the  lesson  they  are 
to  read;  in  this  way  old  experiences  are  recalled, 
and  made  ready  to  aid  in  appreciating  the  new 
ideas  of  the  coming  lesson.  This  is  a  sort  of  lan- 
guage lesson. 

(2)  It  should  reveal  what  more  the  pupils  need  in  order 

to  understand  and  enjoy  the  new  lesson  and  sup- 
ply that  need  by  pictures,  drawings,  descriptions, 
story,  incident.  Also  a  kind  of  language  lesson. 

(3)  The  feelings  of  the  pupils  should  be  touched  that 

they  may  be  put  in  the  right  emotional  attitude 
towards  the  piece  to  be  read. 

(4)  In  (1),  (2)  and  (3)  the  preparation  of  the  minds  of 

the  pupils  for  the  thought  and  feeling  is  indicated. 
The  preparation  must  also  help  the  pupil  master 
the  words  used  in  the  book.  Hence  the  teacher 
will  write  upon  the  board,  explain,  and  assist  pu- 
pils to  right  pronunciation  of  words  too  difficult 
for  them  to  master;  or,  after  the  dictionary  habit 
is  started,  she  will  point  out  those  they  can  mas- 
ter by  themselves.  After  this  preparation  which 
should  interest  pupils  in,  and  clear  the  way  for, 


&EADING.  3? 

intelligent  study,  the  seat  period  given  the  inde- 
pendent effort,  should  be  profitable. 
(5)  The   direction   should  not  be  "read   the  lesson  six 
times,"  which  has  little  value,  but,  "read  the  lesson 
so  that  you  will  be  able  to  tell  me  the  whole  story 
of  it.      If  you  cannot  get  it  copy  down  all  the 
words  and  sentences  that  trouble  you."    A  device 
that  is  excellent  for  stimulating  study  is  to  have 
pupils  prepare  in  writing  questions  upon  the  read- 
ing lesson  to  be  asked  of  the  other  pupils.     Both 
the  questioner  and  the  ones  questioned  are  spurred 
to  effort.     See  illustrations  in  Lesson  Section  27, 
Arnold:  Reading,  how  to  teach  it,  Ch.  IV  and  V,  also  pp, 
203-205. 

Salisbury:  The  Theory  of  Teaching XXXVII,  Law  of  Apper- 
ception. 

{)  Ilo\v  the  reading  exercise  should  be  conducted  to  promote 
i  nought-getting. 

(1)  Pupils  must  not  be  allowed  to  read  orally  until  they 
have  the  thought. 

(a)  If  pupils  have  been  started  as  described  in 

15,  the  children  have  practiced  this  from 
the  beginning. 

(b)  In    the    first   readers,    have   pupils    get  the 

thought  of  a  sentence  and  then  look  at  the 
teacher  and  give  it. 

(c)  AVli en   the  paragraphs   grow  larger,  let  the 

pupils  read  the  paragraphs  through  "with 
the  eyes"  each  letting  the  teacher  know  at 
once  when  a  word  troubles  him.  She  helps 
him  to  apply  his,  knowledge  to  phonics  in 
getting  it.  Some  one  is  called  upon  for  the 
oral  reading. 

(d)  When  pupils  have  studied  their  lessons  at 

their  seats,  the  teacher  will  open  the  read- 
ing exercise  by  questioning  them,  to  see 


38  MANUAL  OF    THE    ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

what  their  study  has  amounted  to.  Her 
thoroughness  here  will  largely  determine 
what  the  study  habits  of  her  class  will  be. 
This  also  is  a  language  exercise. 

(2)  The  teacher    should  have  the  conditions  best   for 
promoting  thought-getting. 

(a)  By  making  the  pupil   who  is   reading  aloud 

feel  that  he  is  responsible  for  giving  thought 
to  others,  at  least  to  herself.  Hence  the 
teacher  will  always  close  her  book  and  lis- 
ten when  a  pupil  begins  to  read.  It  is  not 
always  best  to  have  the  other  pupils  close 
their  books.  This  sense  of  responsibility 
is  greatly  increased  by  having  pupils  in 
succession  read  to  the  class  from  some  li- 
brary book  or  supplementary  reader.  If 
the  reading  matter  is  easy,  at  least  one  grade 
below  that  in  which  he  is  regularly  read- 
ing, the  pupil  will  need  less  time  for  prep- 
aration than  if  the  reading  matter  requires 
study;  but  (1)  above,  holds  in  so-called 
"sight  reading"  as  elsewhere.  A  pupil  can 
do  good  sight-reading  only  when  he  is  a 
good  sight-reader. 

Arnold:   Reading;  how  to  teach  it,  pp. 
205-208. 

(b)  Let  pupil  stand  before  the  class  and  have  an 

audience  when  he  is  called  upon  to  read 
something  of  some  length  which  he  is  pre- 
pared to  give  well. 

(c)  It  must  bo  understood  that  only  the  teacher 

who  has  good  control  can  hold  her  pupils 
to  their  best  effort  in  thought-getting,  or  in 
performing  any  other  school  duty. 

Clark:  How  to  teach  reading  in  the  public 
schools,  Ch.  V. 


BEADING.  39 

(3)  The  teacher  should  allow  no  school  practices  that 
center  attention  elsewhere  than  upon  the  thought. 

(a)  One   of  these  to   be  'avoided  is  "reading  trft 

they  make  a  mistake."  Since  a  "mistake" 
is  the  wrong  calling  of  a  word,  children 
soon  come  to  know  the  game,  and  devote 
their  energies  to  calling  the  words  rightly. 
Perception  exercises  have  their  place,  but 
such  a  one  as  this  tends  to  distroy  the  chiel 
habit  that  the  reading  class  should  aim  to 
form — that  of  getting,  holding,  and  express- 
ing the  thought. 

(b)  Another  of  these  practices  is  allowing  class 

criticism  to  run  to  -mere  fault-finding  and 
competition  on  the  part  of  the  listeners  as 
to  who  can  find  the  most  mistakes;  "mis- 
takes," again,  being  only  those  of  pronun- 
ciation or  other  matters  of  form.  This  is 
absolutely  destructive  of  power  to  get 
thought,  especially  of  the  sensitive  child, 
and  is  conducive  to  bad  habits  in  him,  be- 
sides being  harmful  to  the  morals  of  the 
others.  An  atmosphere  of  helpfulness 
and  sympathy  is  what  is  needed. 

(c)  For  the  teacher  to  interrupt  a  pupil's  reading 

for  the  correction  of  slight  errors  disturbs 
the  though t-getting-holding-and-giving  pro- 
cess. If  he  blunders  badly  he  should  be 
stopped  altogether  and  made  to  get  ready 
for  the  oral  reading,  with  the  teacher's  help 
if  necessary.  But  if  he  is  reading  with  ani- 
mation and  makes  errors  that  do  not  ser- 
iously affect  the  thought  let  him  go  on  to 
the  end  of  his  time.  Corrections  can  then 
be  made. 


40  MANUAL,   uF    THE    EJ.E.M  K.N  1'ARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

(-1)  Criticism  of  the  right,  kind  will  promote  the  habit 
of  thought-getting.  The  form  of  criticism  that  is 
legitimate  in  a  reading  class  always  gets  at  all  de- 
fects in  oral  reading  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
thought.  The  teacher  who  has  listened  with  book 
closed  says,  "I  did  not  get  the  thought  of  the  first 
sentence;  you  must  have  miscalled  a  word." 
"Look  it  through  again  and  when  you  have  the 
thought  give  it."  Judicious  commendation  oi 
really  commendable  qualities  in  any  pupil's  effort, 
is  always  in  order. 

(5)  There  should,  occasionally,  be  entire  exercises  when 
there  is  no  oral  reading.     This  can  be  tried,  when 
in  a  new  supplementary  reader,  a  story  is  selected. 
One  purpose  of  this  is  to  make  pupils  enjoy  read- 
ing.    The  pupils  read  silently,  the  teacher  sitting 
ready  to  help  them   when  difficulties  arise.     The 
next  exercise  may  be  given  to  the  discussion  of 
what  was  read.     A  third  exercise  may  have  for 
its  aim  practice  upon  the  oral  reading  of  the  story. 
Pupils  will  now  be  patient   under  criticism  and 
repetition,  and  all  the  work  necessary  to  make 
them  able  to  read  this  story  which  they  have  en 
joyed,  in  such  a  way  that  others  will  enjoy  it. 
g)  How  to  judge  the  success  of  a  reading  exercise. 
"We  may  so  easily  underrate  the  importance,  for  the  future 
development  of  the  child,  of  the  associations  that  have  clus- 
tered about  the  class  exercise,  the  class  room,  and  the  teacher. 
It  is  well  in  reviewing  our  efforts  for  a  given  period,  to  ask 
ourselves:  Has  the  work  depressed  or  braced  the  mind  and 
character  of  our  pupils?    Has  it  developed  power?     In  what 
attitude  towards  the  subject  have  the  pupils  been  left?     There 
are  no  more  important  test  questions  than  these;  and  by  the 
answers  to  them  must  the  ultimate  success  or  failure  of  our 
efforts  be  judged,  be  the  efforts   with  a  beginner  of  five  or  the 
high  school  pupil  of  fifteen." 

Chubb:  Teaching  of  English,  p.  75. 


READING. 


V.     Oral  Reading,— thought    expression,     involving    the 
vocal-mechanical  and  mental  acts. 

27.  Instruction  and  suggestions  for  teachers. 

a)  Agencies  that  combine  to  make  good  oral  reading, 

(1)  Right  breathing. 

(2)  Correct  articulation. 

(3)  Clear  enunciation. 

(4)  Agreeable  tone  of  voice. 

(5)  Natural  expression. 

b)  Influences  that  bring  these  agencies  into  operation. 

(1)  The  desire  to  read. 

(2)  Ideals  of  what  constitutes  good  oral  reading. 

(3)  Drill  to  develop  power  to  progress  towards  the  ideal. 

c)  The  teacher's  part  in  promoting  these  influences.     The  in- 
fluences named  in  "b"   must  largely  come  from  the  school. 
Read  IV,  again,  in  this  connection. 

(1)  How  to  promote  the  desire  to  read,  which  is  a  great 
propelling  force; 

(a)  The  reading  exercise  must  be  pleasant.     Pu- 

pils do  not  fall  in  love  with  things  that  bore 
them. 

(b)  The  reading  matter  has  much  to  do  with  the 

interest  and  pleasure  felt.  The  evidence 
that  any  piece  is  mischosen  for  pupils  is, 
much  labor  on  words,  construction,  allu- 
sions, in  order  that  a  work  may  be  under- 
stood. The  right  reading  matter  is  litera- 
ture within  the  range  of  the  pupil's  interest 
and  experience.  (See  17  and  26  b  and  c.) 

(c)  Thought  must  be  properly  developed.    Pupils 

must  know  and  feel  before  they  can  ex- 
press. (See  26,  d  and  e.) 

(d)  Do  not  try  to  make  your  pupils  perfect  in  too 

many  ways  at  once.  Get  one  thing  at  a 
time.  When  you  have  secured  animation 


MANUAL,  OF   THE  ELEMEA1  TAE.Y    COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

in  the  reading,  you  have  the  fundamental 
thing,  just  as  spontaneity  and  freedom  are 
the  fundamental  things  in  language.  Other 
qualities  that  make  for  good  reading  can  be 
built  up  from  that  foundation.  (See  26  f, 
(1)  and  (2).) 

(e)  Wrong  criticism  may  weaken  or  destroy  the 
desire  to  read.  (See  26  f,  (3),  (4)  and  (5).) 

(2)  The  influence  of  a  pupil's  ideals. 

(a)  Children  are  not  to  blame  for  their  ideals. 

The  child  who  can  look  off  the  book  and 
tell  the  thought  of  a  sentence  or  paragraph 
to  you  naturally,  but  who  assumes  a  higher 
pitch  and  calls  words  mechanically  as  soon 
as  he  drops  his  eyes  to  the  book,  does  so 
because  the  latter  is  his  ideal  of  reading. 
Change  his  ideal.  Tell  him  when  he  has 
given  the  thought  well  in  nearly  or  exactly 
the  words  of  the  book,  that  he  has  read  the 
sentence  or  paragraph  well,  and  let  it  go  at 
that.  It  is  one  way  of  bringing  the  pupil 
to  understand  that  good  reading  is  express- 
ing the  thought  as  a  person  would  give  it 
in  conversation. 

(b)  Build   up  better  ideals.      Let  your  children 

hear  a  little  good  reading  every  day.  If 
you  are  not  a  good  reader  proceed  to  better 
your  condition.  Get  such  a  book  as  Clark's 
"How  to  teach  reading  in  the  public 
schools"  and  study  it  through  from  intro- 
duction to  index. 

(3)  The  influence  of  drill. 

(a)  The  regular  reading  exercises  will  suggest  to 

the  teacher  certain  points  for  the  drill. 

(b)  Let  pupils  take  part  and  act  out  all  conversa- 

tional lessons,  or  parts  of    lessons.      The 


EEADING.  43 

repetition  of  these  docs  not  diminish  their 
interest.  Children  are  horn  dramatists, 
they  love  to  act  out  these  pieces. 

(c)  Use  the  poems  that  occur  in   reading  books 

for  drill  in  getting  smoothness,  and  right 
pausing. 

(d)  Encourage  pupils  to  read  orally  at  home,  and 

thus   rehearse  the  lessons  whose  thought 

and  expression  have  been  developed  in  class. 

({)   The.  teacher's  part  in  perfecting  the  agencies  named  in  a. 

(1)  Teach  pupils  to  breathe  rightly. 

Since  the  breath  is  the  material  of  sound,  right 
breathing  is  needed  for  full;  clear,  distinct,  effect- 
ive utterance.  To  have  right  breathing,  and 
hence  prepare  the  way  for  correct  utterance,  an 
erect,  free,  expansive  position  of  the  chest  is  an 
indispensable  condition.  The  teacher  should  look 
after  this,  and  be  as  watchful  of  the  child's  habits 
of  sitting  at  his  seat,  as  of  his  position  when 
reading  or  reciting  on  his  feet. 

(2)  Work  for  clear  articulation.     Since  correct  articula- 

tion means  giving  to  every  element  of  a  word  its 
proper  character,  the  relation  of  articulation  to 
the  study  of  phonics  is  readily  seen. 

(a)  If  the  pupils  in  the  higher  forms  have  not 

been  taught  phonics,  the  directions  given 
in  24  and  25  can  be  beneficially  followed 
out  with  them. 

(b)  The  need   of    this   drill.      Clearness    and 

beauty  of  pronunciation  depend  upon  the 
accuracy  and  force  with  which  the  mus- 
cles controlling  the  organs  of  speech 
work.  Muscular  skill  of  any  kind  can 
come  only  from  directed  exercise. 


4-i  MAX  LJAL   OF    1'IIE   ELEMENTARY    COtJSSJE   OF   STUDY. 

(3)  Insist  upon  clear  utterance. 

(a)  Pay  daily  attention  from  the  start  to  clear 

speaking.  Give  occasional  exercises  tc 
break  up  the  habit  of  mumbling,  and  se- 
cure proper  use  of  the  vocal  organs.  (See 
25,  c,  (2)  and  (3).) 

(b)  Bent  head  and  lowered  chest  is  a  common 

cause  of  indistinctness.  Have  pupils  stand 
with  head  erect,  and  book  held  in  such  a 
way  that  while  it  is  in  right  position  for 
the  eye,  it  will  not  obstruct  the  tone.  No 
rigid  directions  need  be  given, — just  com- 
mon sense  suggestion  is  enough. 

(c)  Absence  of  motive  to  read  distinctly.     Why 

should  a  child  exert  himself  to  make  others 
understand  when  his  audience  all  have 
books  for  themselves,  and  are  not  three 
feet  away  from  him.  Give  pupils  a  motive 
for  enunciating  distinctly.  Get  away  from 
the  reader  and  urge  him  to  make  you  un- 
derstand him.  The  worst  mumbler  in  the 
school  never  fails  to  make  his  fellows  un- 
derstand him  on  the  playground,  even 
though  the  stretch  of  the  school  yard  be 
between  them.  (See  26  f,  (2).) 

(4)  Do  what  you  can  to  correct  disagreeable  tones. 

(a)  Some  that  you  can  help  little  or  not  at  all:— 

Those  that  arise  from  disease,  as  catarrh 

i 

enlarged  tonsils;  those  that  are  due  to  in- 
herited defects,  as  cleft  palate. 

(b)  Others   that   can   be   helped:     Harsh  tones, 

drawling,  high  pitch. 

(c)  Imitation  is  the  most  potent  agent  in  helping 

the  qualities  named  in  (b).  The  teacher 
who  speaks  and  reads  in  a  smooth  well 
modulated  voice  is  doing  much  all  the  tirr>o. 


READING.  45 

(d)  Dramitization  of   these  pieces  in  the  reader 
where  the  proper  rendering  demands  low, 
smooth,  soft  tones. 
(5)  Help  to  build  up  habits  of  natural  expression. 

(a)  When  the  directions  given  in  15  have  been 

followed  in  starting  pupils  in  reading,  and 
when,  afterwards,  they  are  treated  as  di- 
rected in  26,  the  question  of  natural  ex- 
pression will  not  be  a  troublesome  one. 

(b)  To  improve  habits  in  others,  proceed  always 

from  the  standpoint  of  thought  and  feeling. 
This  means  that  you  are  not  to  talk  to  pu- 
pils about  inflections,  pausing,  emphasis, 
and  so  on.  Bend  your  energies  to  making 
the  conditions  of  thought  and  feeling  right, 
and  then  the  manifestations  of  these  condi- 
tions, which  in  the  child's  voluntary,  natu- 
ral speech  are  instinctive,  will  appear  of 
themselves  in  his  reading. 

(c)  Remember  that   emphasis    is    any  means   of 

making  the  thought  stand  out.  Stress, 
that  is,  hitting  the  word  harder,  is  only  one 
form  of  emphasis.  Another  important 
form  of  emphasis  is  inflection  or  voice 
bending.  To  teach  emphasis,  teach  analy- 
sis of  thought.  Every  sentence  has  a  cen- 
tral idea  arid  until  it  is  found  the  sentence 
cannot  be  read  with  proper  emphasis. 
That  central  idea  was  in  the  mind  of  the 
author  when  he  put  that  sentence  into  re- 
lation with  others.  Ask  questions  that  will 
probe  for  the  central  idea  of  the  sentence. 
A  teacher  who  is  able  to  put  such  questions 
hrxS  attained  the  most  important  art  in  the, 
teaching  of  expressive  reading. 


46  MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

(d)  Illustration  of  what  is  meant  by  (c). 

Such  an  exercise  as  this  might  be  used 
with  upper  form  pupils,  to  reveal  to  them 
the  importance  of  emphasis  in  thought  in- 
terpretation. The  following  sentence  may 
be  written  on  the  board:  Frank  rode  his 
brown  pony  to  school  this  morning.  The 
central  idea  of  this  sentence  and  hence  the 
reading  of  it  will  depend  upon  its  relations 
to  other  thoughts  and  conditions. 

First  we  will  suppose  that  this  is  a  sen- 
tence out  of  a  story  which  has  been  told  UP 
about  Frank  and  his  brother  John,  both  A 
whom  have  the  privilege  of  riding  the  pony. 
Then  the  reading  is,  "Frank  rode  his 
brown  pony  to  school  this  morning.  Sec- 
ond let  us  suppose  that  Frank  has  two  po- 
nies, a  black  one  as  well  as  a  brown  one, 
both  of  which  he  can  ride.  Then  the  read- 
ing would  be,  "Frank  rode  his  broiun  pony 
to  school  this  morning."  As  many  differ- 
ent relations  may  be  invented  for  this  sen- 
tence as  there  are  different  words  in  it,  each 
of  which  would  change  the  central  idea  and 
hence  change  the  emphasis.  It  would  be 
a  mechanical  and  worthless  exercise  for  the 
teacher  to  tell  the  pupil  to  read  it  and  put 
the  emphasis  on  a  certain  word.  Help  the 
pupil  to  get  the  central  idea,  and  then  the 
emphasis  will  put  itself  where  it  belongs. 

(e)  Remember  that   punctuation    marks   are  to 

show  the  grammatical  relations  of  the  ele- 
ments of  the  sentence,  and  are  only  indi- 
rect guides  to  expression.  If  the  thought 
demands  it,  pauses  must  be  made  where 
there  are  no  commas.  If  the  thought  de- 


READING.  47 

mands  it,  the  voice,  instead  of  being  kept 
up,  must  fall  at  commas.  If  the  thought 
demands  it  a  question  is  given  with  a  down- 
ward slide,  and  this  happens  just  as  often 
as  the  demand  to  give  the  question  with 
the  upward  slide. 

(f)   Rules  for  emphasis,  or   inflection   or  pausing 
are  only  a  hindrance  to  good  expression. 
References.    McMurry:    Special   Method 
in  the  Reading  of   the  English  Clas- 
sics, Chapters  IV  and  V. 
Chubb:  The  Teaching  of  English,  CK 

VII  and  X. 
Clark:  How  to    Teach  Reading,   Paj  t 

Two:  Method  of  Instruction. 
Salisbury:  The   Theory   of    Teaching 
Ch.  XXVII,  "Habit." 

VI.    Illustrative  Exercises. 

28.     Exercise  suitable  to  the  First  or  Second  Year. 

The  first  sentences  of  the  lesson  are  as  follows: 

"The  milkweed  babies  are  all  in  their  cradles. 

The  wind  came  to  the  milkweed  and  shook  the  cradles. 

He  said,  'Find  wings  and  come/ 

Then  the  babies  came  out. 

The  wind  blew  the  babies  away. 

Where  did  they  sleep  all  winter?" 

(Taken  from  "Pathways  in  Nature  and  Literature,  First 
Reader,  University  Pub.  Co. 

a)  The  general  preparation  for  this  lesson  is  the  collection 
and  study  of  the  milkweed  pods  containing  the  closely  packed 
winged  seeds — the  milkweed  babies.  .The  pod  has  been  spoken 
of  as  the  cradle  of  the  babies.  The  words  "Milkweed-babies" 
and  "cradle"  have  been  written  on  the  board  during  the  discus- 
sion. 


43  MA^UAJL  OF    THE  ELBiMEIs' TAIcY    COURSB   OF   STUDY. 

b)  Reading:. 

Teacher:  "We  will  read  to-day  about  the  milkweed-babies 
that  we  have  been  looking  at  and  talking  about.  The  first  sen- 
tence tells  you  where  they  are."  With  this  hint  the  children 
begin  to  work  out  the  thought.  When  all  or  several  have  the 
thought,  the  teacher  calls  on  one  to  stand  and  tell  it.  This 
"telling"  is  the  reading,  and  the  more -freely  and  naturally  he 
tells  the  thought,  the  better  is  the  reading. 

Teacher:  "The  next  sentence  tells  us  what  happened  one 
day  to  the  babies."  Here  it  may  be  necessary  to  help  some 
one  with  the  word  wind  which  is  done  by  the  use  of  the  phono- 
gram in,  prefixed  by  the  sound  of  wt  and  followed  by  d.  (Sea 
:M,  g);  also  shook,  which  is  ook  with  sh  prefixed.  Probably 
with  this  help,  the  children  can  get  the  thought.  It  is  then 
told,  (read)  as  before. 

Teacher:  "The  next  sentence  tells  us  what  the  wind  said." 
The  children  study  and  tell  the  thought. 

Teacher:  "Do  you  want  to  know  whether  the  babies  did 
what  the  wind  told  them?"  The  exclamation  from  some  child, 
"Yes,  they  did,"  shows  that  he  has  read  the  sentence. 

Teacher:  "What  do  you  suppose  happened  then?"  Children 
study  and  tell. 

Teacher:  "The  next  sentence  asks  an  interesting  question 
that  I  think  you  can  answer."  Children  read  as  before.  The 
question  or  suggestion  of  the  teacher  preceding  each  sen- 
tence is  the  preparation  referred  to  in  26  d,  (1). 

The  same  general  plan  is  followed  when  the  pupil  is  able  to 
read  a  paragraph  at  a  time  instead  of  a  sentence;  and,  later, 
when  he  is  able  to  advance  by  still  longer  thought  units . 


READING.  4<J 

29.  Exercise  suitable  to  the  Third  or  Fourth  Year. 

THE    SHIP   COMING    HOME. 

1 

Why  stand  you  there, 
Sweet  maiden  fair, 
With  eyes  upon  the  sea, 
Forgetting  play 
To  gaze  all  day 
On  ocean  rolling  free? 

2 

Is  there  a  ship 

From  foreign  trip 

Now  coming  up  the  bay, 

That  brings  you  gold 

For  treasures  sold 

In  countries  far  away? 

3 

Ah,  there's  a  line 

Of  black  smoke  fine 

Upon  the  distant  sky! 

She  sees  a  speck 

The  ocean  fleck 

Beneath  the  smoke  on  high. 

4 

It  grows  and  grows 

Until  she  knows 

It  is  the  steamer  due. 

Her  little  heart 

Beats  wild  its  part 

As  co:u3s  the  ship  in  view. 

5 

She  turns  her  head; 
Her  cheeks  niv  red, 
Her  eyes  no  longer  roam. 
"  I  want  no  gold 
For  treasures  sold— 
That  ship  brings  papa  home!1' 
'From  Hnldwiirs  School  Reading  by  Grades.) 
5— C. 


50  AIA.N  UA.L  OF   THE  ELEMEN  FARY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

The  preparatory  lesson. 

The  preparation  for  this  poem  will  be  very  different  foi 
children  of  different  localities.  The  Sheboygan  or  other  lake 
port  child  will  have  in  his  experience  all  he  needs  to  build  up, 
under  the  questioning  of  the  teacher,  the  pictures  suggested  in 
the  poem.  Not  so  the  child  born  and  reared  inland.  How 
shall  the  teacher  proceed  with  the  latter? 

30.  First  step.     (See  26  e  (1).) 

Teacher:  "How  many  of  you  have  ever  seen  a  large  body  of 
water,  stretching  away  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see?"  If  some 
one  responds,  he  is  asked  to  tell  his  experience  to  the  others. 

31.  Second  step.     (See  26,  e,  (2).) 

Teacher:  "Here  is  a  picture  of  such  a  large  body  of  water 
called  the  ocean."  "Ocean"  written  on  the  board.  If  so  fortu- 
nate as  to  have  one,  the  teacher  shows  children  a  colored  pic- 
ture representing  the  sea  and  a  steamship  upon  it.  Otherwise 
she  uses  whatever  pictures  the  geography  or  library  books 
may  afford; — but  pictures  she  must  have, — the  sketch  in  the 
book  is  not  enough.  The  pictures  are  discussed.  The  line 
where  the  sky  and  water  seem  to  meet  is  pointed  out.  Pic- 
tures put  away  for  a  time. 

Teacher:  "Have  you  ever  been  going  along  the  road,  when  a 
man  has  come  towards  you  over  a  hill?"  Teacher  draws  with 
simple  lines  the  situation.  Teacher:  "As  he  came  up  the  hill 
in  front  of  you,  what  would  you  see  first?"  Either  experience 
or  the  drawing  should  prompt  the  answer,  "The  man's  head." 
"Yes,  and  then  his  shoulders,  and  finally  you  could  see  his 
whole  figure  from  head  to  feet." 

Teacher:  "You  know  the  earth  is  round.  When  a  steamer 
is  away  off  on  the  ocean,  the  curve  of  the  earth  hides  the  ship 
from  sight,  just  as  the  curve  of  the  hill  hid  the  man  from  you. 
As  the  steamer  comes  nearer  you  first  see, — what  do  you  sup- 
pose?" Different  answers  are  given.  "Yes,  Charlie  is  right, 
you  see  the  smoke  first.  Then  the  smoke  stack,  then  more 
and  more  of  the  ship,  until  it  is  all  in  sight."  (Use  pictures 
or  drawings  to  make  the  idea  clearer.) 


BEADING.  51 

32.  Third  step. 

Teacher:  "Open  your  readers  to  page  82,  and  look  at  the  first 
picture.  (It  is  a  small  sketch  of  a  little  girl  standing  on  the 
shore,  -and  looking  eagerly  out  to  sea. )  Where  is  the  little  girl 
standing?  What  makes  you  think  so?  What  do  you  suppose 
she  is  looking  at?  What  may  she  be  expecting?  Why  is  she 
so  interested?  These  may  be  some  of  the  questions  the  teacher 
would  ask,  her  purpose  being  to  get  the  children  thinking  about 
the  little  girl  and  so  preparing  them  to  understand  and  enjoy 
the  poem.  (See  26,  e,  (3).) 

Teacher:  "Look  at  the  next  picture."  (A  small  sketch  of  a 
steamer  at  sea.)  "See  the  black  smoke  coming  out  of  the 
smokestacks.  It  is  a  large  ship,  isn't  it?  Do  you  think  the 
steamer  has  anything  to  do  with  the  little  girl?"  Answer,  "I 
think  she  is  looking  for  the  steamer."  Teacher:  "Do  you  think 
it  may  be  bringing  her  something?"  Oh,  so  many  things  come 
to  people  from  over  the  ocean.  The  ships  bring  beautiful  things 
from  foreign  countries,  which  means  countries  across  the  ocean 
from  us.  (Foreign  and  countries  written  on  the  board.)  Ships 
carry  away  from  our  country  beautiful  things,  treasures  we 
can  call  them,  and  when  these  things  are  sold  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, the  ships  bring  the  money  back  to  the  merchants  who 
owned  the  treasures.  (Treasures  written  on  the  board.)  "Do 
you  think  this  steamer  was  bringing  this  little  girl  some  beau- 
tiful gift,  or  some  money?  See  the  other  picture.  (A  sketch 
of  a  man  in  uniform  just  leaving  the  steamer.)  Who  do  you 
think  the  man  is?  Can  you  guess  whom  the  little  girl  is  wait- 
ing for?  (See  26,  e,  (3)  and  (4).) 

3o.   The  fourth  step,     The  assignment. 

"  This  little  poem  tells  you  all  about  it.  If  you  read  it  you'll 
find  out  what  she  was  expecting,  and  whether  you  guessed 
rightly  about  the  man.  Perhaps  you  will  read,  too,  how  this 
ship  came  into  sight.  Some  of  the  hard  words  are  on  the  board. 
Mtiry  may  promounce  them.  There  are  a  few  others."  The 
teacher  will  introduce  other  words  according  as  she  judges  the 


J'2/  MANUAL,  OF    THE  ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

/icc-ds  of  her  class  to  be.  Perhaps  the  ten  words  given  in  the 
list  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  will  be  all  that  are  necessary. 
She  may  need  to  prepare  them  upon  more.  She  will  do  well 
to  introduce  these  words  in  relation  not  isolated  from  the 
thought  of  the  lesson.  Thus:  "The  little  girl  is  called  this  in 
the  story."  Writes  maiden.  "When  we  look  at  anything  very 
steadily  we  are  said  to  gaze  at  it."  Writes  gaze.  "Did  you 
ever  hear  anyone  say  that  the  sky  was  flecked  with  clouds? 
What  did  it  mean?"  Teacher  writes  fleck.  "Study  the  poem 
carefully  so  that  you  can  tell  me  all  about  it  tomorrow." 

Remarks:—  There  is  very  little  value  in  the  study  of  a  list  of 
isolated  words.  Children  should  be  taught  early,  as  this  exer- 
cise illustrates,  to  study  words  in  the  sentences,  and  so  later 
ise  the  dictionary  intelligently,  and  effectively. 

The  teacher  who  reads  this  will  say  that  the  time  in  her  pro- 
gram for  reading  is  not  long  enough  to  do  all  this.  The  an- 
swer is  that  the  time  given  to  reading  is  too  short,  too  precious, 
to  be  used  in  any  other  way  than  to  inculcate  right  habits,— 
open  up  the  mind  of  the  child  to  an  understanding  of  what 
reading,  really  is  and  teach  him  to  interpret.  Call  the  first  two 
steps  of  this  a  geography  lesson,  and  begin  the  work  upon  it 
several  days  before  the  reading  lesson.  Then  in  the  reading 
lesion  you  can  begin  at  (3).  That  step  can  be  taken  in  one 
exercise.  Arnold:  Reading,  How  to  teach  it,  pp.  203-205. 

34-.  Fifth  step. 

Children  study  independently  at  seats.  Questions  written 
upon  the  board  will  often  stimulate  and  guide  pupils  in  their 
study.  As,  "Who  is  talking  in  the  first  stanza?  In  the  sec- 
ond? What  do  the  third  and  fourth  stanzas  tell  you?  Does 
the  little  girl  answer  the  questions?" 

35.  Sixth  step. 

Testing  the  results  of  the  study,  and  development  of  the 
thought.  Books  are  closed. 

Teacher:  "Were  you  right  yesterday  in  guessing  who  the 
man  in  the  picture  is?  How  long  did  the  little  girl  stand 


BEADING.  53 

watching  the  ocean?  Did  you  ever  watch  that  long  for  any 
one?  What  does  'ocean  rolling  free'  mean  to  you?  See 
sketch.  What  was  the  first  sign  the  little  girl  saw  that  told 
her  that  the  steamer  was  coming?  What  next?  The  book 
says,  'She  saw  a  speck  the  ocean  fleck!'  What  does  that 
mean?  What  question  was  asked  the  little  girl?  How  did  she 
answer  it?" 

Open  books.     The  word  list  is  pronounced  quickly. 

Teacher:     "One  of  you  may  read  the  first  stanza,  and  talk 

to  the  little  girl."     Teacher  calls  on  pupil.     Teacher:  " 

may  ask  the  little  girl  the  next  question."  Be  sure  of  those  hard 
words  before  you  begin.  Pupil  reads.  Teacher:  "Now  we  will 
think  we  are  standing  there  with  the  little  girl,  looking  out  at 

the  ocean,  while reads  us  about  what  she  sees."  "Now  the 

ship  is  at  the  wharf,  and  the  little  girl  catches  sight  of  some- 
body. Who  wants  to  tell  us  what  she  said?" 

The  general  order  of  procedure  is  outlined  here.  It  is  not 
supposed  that  the  oral  reading  is  satisfactory  in  every  way. 
For  method  of  criticism  see  26,  f,  (4),  of  which  the  following 
is  a  specific  illustration: 

The  pupil  reading  the  third  stanza  lets  his  voice  fall  after 
"nine."  Why  did  he  do  this?  Simply  because  he  did  not 
have  the  thought-relations  clearly  in  mind;  he  did  not  picture 
these  relations.  The  remedy  then  is,  help  him  to  get  the  pic- 
ture. Teacher:  "The  little  girl  is  looking  away  off  across  the 
water  to  where  the  sky  seems  to  come  down  to  the  sea.  What  is 
the  first  thing  she  sees  that  makes  her  think  that  the  steamer 
is  coming?"  Ans.  "Black  smoke."  "Have  you  been  where  you 
could  see  a  locomotive  rush  by,  and  have  you  noticed  the  long 
line  of  smoke  left  behind  the  train?  The  steamer  does  the  same; 
it  leaves  a  line  of  black  smoke  upon  the  distant  sky.  Look 
again  at  the  first  three  lines.  Now  read  it."  The  probabilities 
are  that  the  child  will  correct  the  wrong  pausing.  The  thing 
not  to  do  is  to  say:  "Read  it  again  and  keep  your  voice  up  at 
'line'  ";  or  to  read  it  for  him  and  have  him  imitate. 


54  MjLNILAi,  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OP  BTTTDY. 

36.  Seventh  step. 

The  reading  of  the  poem,  without  much  comment,  just  to 
see  what  the  result  of  the  study  and  teaching  has  been. 

Several  days  after  this  the  teacher  may  open  the  reading  les- 
son by  telling  the  class  to  listen  while  she  reads  them  a  poem. 
She  reads  "The  Ship  Coming  Home,"  simply,  naturally,  giv- 
ing the  very  best  interpretation  of  which  she  is  capable.  If 
she  is  a  really  good  reader,  the  exercise  will  have  an  effect  in 
shaping  ideals — a  sort  of  imitation  that  is  perfectly  legitimate. 

From  all  this  we  conclude  that  "teaching"  reading  is  very 
different  from  hearing  the  reading  class.  We  want  the  children 
of  the  common  schools  taught  reading. 

For  further  illustrative  lessons  see: 

Arnold's  Reading:  how  to  teach  it,  VII  and  VIII. 

Chubb:  The  Teaching  of  English,  pp.  96-102.  (The  author 
uses  Wordsworth's  familiar  poem  "Lucy  Gray.") 

Clark:  How  to  Teach  Reading,  part  three;  literary  interpre- 
tation* 


COURSE  IN  READING. 


Primary  Form — First  Year. 

37.   1.  Aim. 

Mechanical  fluency,  and  foundation  of  right  habits. 

2.  The  preparation  of  the  teacher. 

Read  the  preceding  discussion  of  Reading  and  familiarize 
yourself  with  its  general  plan  and  purport.  As  to  daily  prep- 
aration, the  teacher  must  plan  as  carefully  for  her  primary 
reading  as  for  the  upper  form  classes  in  geography  and  arith- 
metic. She  should  also  provide  for  seat  occupation,  which  oc- 
cupation should  be  profitable  and  should  have  for  its  aim  the 
furthering  of  some  regular  school  interest,  and  not  be  merely 
"busy- work." 


MLLDINQ.  65 

#8.  3.   The  daily  program  for  the  first  grade. 

Ten  minutes  is  long  enough  to  hold  first  year  pupils  to  one 
line  of  effort  in  recitation.  There  should  be  frequent  change, 
and  attention  should  be  given  to  them  just  as  often  as  possible. 
Much  can  be  accomplished  in  a  five  minute  period  if  the  teacher 
knows  just  what  she  wants  to  do  in  that  time.  There  is  a  var- 
iety of  interests  related  to  reading  that  afford  profitable  exer- 
cises for  primary  children,  both  in  class  recitation  and  at  seats, 
and  all  helping  towards  accomplishing  the  aim  of  the  year.  It 
may  not  be  possible  for  teachers  with  full  programs  to  get  all 
these  exercises  in  daily;  but  it  is  believed  that  some '"chinks" 
in  the  daily  program  can  be  and  will  be  turned  to  profitable 
use  with  the  little  ones,  if  teachers  know  better  what  to  do. 

39.  4.  Exercises  relating  to  reading. 

The  following  exercises  distinct  in  themselves,  yet  all  boar- 
ing  upon  the  reading  and  helpful  to  one  another  when  properly 
correlated  constitute  the  Course  in  Reading  for  the  first  year; 
ciinl,  with  modifications,  as  other  school  subjects  besides  read- 
ing claim  attention,  for  the  second  and  third  year. 

a — Language,  oral  expression,  the  preparatory  exercise. 

b — Reading. 

c — Writing. 

d—  Phonics,  word-building. 

e — Spelling. 

f — Occupation  and  construction  work. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

•40.  5.   Outline  of  the  Course. 

a)   Oral  language,  the  basis  of  reading. 

(1)  During  the  period  of  blackboard  reading. 
The  sentences  read  by  the  child  from  the 
blackboard  are  those  spoken  by  himself. 
These  sentences  follow  observation,  ac- 
tion, or  narration,  and  are  the  result  of 


MAM.AL   Oi<    TilE    BLlvMKNTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

the  pupil's  effort  to  tell  what  he  has  seen, 
or  done,  or  to  reproduce  the  story  heard. 
(See  Sec.  13,  14  (1),  and  15  a.) 

(2)  When  pupils  read  from  the  book.  The  lan- 

guage exercise  is  frequently  necessary  to 
prepare  pupils  for  the  thought  of  the  les- 
son. It  is  here  that  the  unfamiliar  words 
are  presented.  (28  a.) 

(3)  Adapt  the  preparatory  lesson  to  conditions. 

Omit  when  the  thought  of  the  reading 
lesson  is  familiar.      Use  time  in  program 
for  other  language  work.     See  Course  in 
Language  for  First  Year, 
b)  Reading. 

(1)  A  description  of  how  to  begin  is  given  in 

Sec.  15. 

(2)  Pupils  should  be  kept  at  black-board  read- 

ing until  they  know  what  reading  is,  that 
it  is  thought-getting;  and  have  acquired 
a  vocabulary  that  will  make  the  first 
twenty  or  thirty  pages  of  the  book  easy 
and  enjoyable,  Sec.  16,  17  and  18.  See 
McMur ray's  Special  Method  in  Primary 
Reading,  Chap.  VI  for  further  help. 

(3)  The  teacher  should  have  the  strips  described 

in  14,  and  give  by  use  of  them  drills  in 
sight-reading  of  commands,  executed 
rapidly  as  proof  of  the  reading,  and  of 
other  sentences  which  are  "made  true." 
The  teacher's  part  of  this  exercise  is  to 
flash  a  card  upon  the  sight  of  the  pupils 
and  speak  the  name  of  a  child;  then  an- 
other, etc.  See  15 -i  and  j.  Concert  work 
has  no  place  here. 

(4)  If  the  spring-roller  curtain  is  adjusted  as  de- 

scribed in   14,  new  lessons  can  be  made 


BJuADING.  57 

out  of  the  familiar  words  and  kept  cov- 
ered from  sight.  This  apparatus  will  also 
serve  to  exercise  the  pupil  in  quick  per- 
ception, by  exposing  a  sentence  for  a  mo- 
ment and  then  covering  it. 

(5)  Make  the  word  cards  as  suggested  in  14     , 

(c),  and  give  drills  with  these  for  facili- 
tating quick  recognition  of  words. 

(6)  Make  word-cards  described  in  14       (d)  and 

distribute  them  for  seat  work.  (See  "Oc- 
cupation" below.) 

(7)  Amount  that  should  be  accomplished.     By 

the  middle  of  the  year  of  eight  or  nine 
months,  pupils  should  have  read  the 
easier  parts  of  at  least  two  primers,  like 
"Child  Life"  or  "Holton"  or  "Haw- 
thorn." By  the  end  of  the  year  they 
should  have  completed  these  and  read  the 
easier  part  of  at  least  two  first  readers. 
First  year  pupils  can  and  do  read  more  or 
less  in  six  or  eight  readers. 

NOTE. --When  a  teacher  is  unable  to 
get  more  than  one  reader  for  her  pupils 
she  can  greatly  extend  the  range  of  their 
reading  matter  by  getting  one  copy  of  a 
new  reader,  and  writing  the  lessons  on  the 
board.  Here  the  curtain  is  helpful, 
r)  Writing. 

(1)  For  the  place  of  writing  in  the  educational 

development  of  the  child  read  Sec.  1-7. 

(2)  When  and  how  the  first  writing  should  be 

done,  see  22. 

(2)  The  words  and  sentences  should  be  those 
that  the  pupil  is  having  in  his  reading, 
thus  writing,  reading  and  spelling  co- 
operate. 


58      MAX  UAL,  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

d)  (4)  Suggestions  for  the  year's  work. 

First—  tracing. 

(a)  Teacher    writes    with    letters    three 

or  four  inches  high  the  name  of 
some  child,  as  Carl.  If  colored 
chalk  is  used  it  is  all  the  more 
attractive. 

(b)  Children  trace   in  the  air,  that  is, 

point  with  outstretched  arm,  fol- 
lowing the  movement  of  the 
teacher  as  she  writes  or  traces  the 
word. 

(c)  Individuals  are  sent  to  the  board  to 

trace  over  the  copy  freely  and 
lightly,  while  the  class  observe. 

(d)  Children  are  given  individual  places 

at  board,  each  with  a  large  copy. 

(e)  At  signal  ("all  aboard!"  perhaps,  for 

the  marks  may  be  a  railroad  track 
which  no  cars  must  leave  until 
the  end  is  reached),  children  be- 
gin to  trace,  each  as  fast  and  well 
as  he  can. 

(f)  Teacher  has  the  same  exercise  using 

a  large  oval  instead  of  a  word. 

(g)  On   sheets    of    scratch    paper,    the 

teacher  will  draw  large  ovals. 
Children  are  given  these  for  seat 
work,  tracing  them  for  develop- 
ment of  free  movement.  (See 
suggestions  about  pencils,  Sec. 
22.) 

e)  Second,  independent  writing. 

(a)  When  children  have  developed  some  arm- 
control,  have  them  attempt  independent 
writing — (third  month). 


BEADING.  59 

(b)  Excellent  script  copies  are  frequently  found 

in  the  reader.  Have  pupils  use  them  for 
seat  work. 

(c)  Let  pupils  set  up  the  copies  from  the  word- 

cards  in  their  envelopes. 

(d)  In  all  this  work  the  teacher  should  realize 

that  imitation  is  the  master-agent  in  de- 
termining what  a  pupil's  writing  will  be. 
Sec.  22. 

f)   (5)  Drawing  and  cutting  exercises  help  hand  con- 
trol and  hence  benefit  writing. 

£)  Phonics  and  word-building.  (Read  15n,  20  and  24c.) 
(1)  The  first  work  in  phonics  should  aim  to  de- 
velop in  pupils  a  "sound-consciousness". 
By  this  is  meant  to  bring  pupils  to  a  real- 
ization that  words  are  made  up  of  sounds, 
to  train  to  detect  these  sounds  when  heard. 
See  15  n. 

4:1.  Further  suggestions. 

(1)  (a)  The  teacher  calls  upon  children  to  point  at  or  fina 
different  objects  in  the  room;  as  "point  at  the 
c-1-o-c-k."  "Frank  may  find  the  f-l-a-g,"  etc. 

(b)  Commands  may  be  given  in  which  the  principal 

words  are  spelled  by  sound,  as,  "r-u-n  to  the 
d-o-o-r." 

(c)  Much  of  this  work  need  take  no  time,  but  be  in- 

cidentally done  in  connection  with  other  exer- 
cises. Thus:  In  the  recital  of  a  story,  the 
teacher  spells  the  important  words  by  sound, 
that  is,  pronounces  them  so  slowly  that  the 
sounds  are  distinct.  "The  little  girl  met  a 
w-o-l-f,  as  she  was  going  through  the  w-oo-d-s." 
Children  are  obliged  to  blend  the  sounds  in 
order  to  get  the  word. 

(d)  Game:  "Tell  what  I  am  thinking  about."  Teacher 

spells  d-o-11,  f-l-a-g,  s-u-n-sh-i-ne. 


CO  MANUAL  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

(e)  Game:  "What  I  saw  in  a  store."     Teacher  spells 

c-a-n-d-y,  etc. 

(f)  Game:  "Guess  who  it  is.     Teacher:  "I  see  some 

one  who  wears  a  b-l-ue  d-r-e-ss.  She  has 
b-l-a-ck  ey-e-s,"  etc.  Other  devices  will  prob- 
ably suggest  themselves  to  teachers. 

(2)  Have  pupils  give  words  that  have  initials  and  end- 

ings like  the  word  named  by  the  teacher.  Teacher: 
"man,"  Pupils:  "more  move  Mary,"  etc.  Teacher: 
"town,"  Pupils:  "drown,  frown."  etc. 

(3)  Pupils  discover  that  words  that  begin  with  the  same 

sound,  begin  with  the  same  letter.  Sounds  are 
now  to  be  associated  with  letters.  Now  begin  teach- 
ing the  consonant  sounds  as  given  in  24  d,  using 
the  method  given  in  24  e  and  f. 

(4)  Introduce  the  phonograms  an,  en,  et,  in,  it,  un,  ut, 

as  given  in  24  g. 

(5)  If  directions    have  been  followed  (24  e)  there   arc 

now  sixteen  cards  containing  the  eight  conso- 
nants and  eight  word-bases.  Teach  the  remain- 
ing consonants  in  the  same  way,  keeping  up  the 
drills  as  described  in  24  f. 

(G)  If  any  of  the  phonograms  given  in  24  j  occur  in 
their  readers,  cards  for  them  may  be  added  to  UK 
above. 

(7)  Word  building.  The  following  suggestions  will  il- 
lustrate how  the  elements  taught  in  the  phonic 
drills  are  to  be  employed: 

(a)  Constant  application  of  what  the  pupil  know^ 

of  phonics  in  making  out  and  pronounc- 
ing new  words  occurring  in  the  reading. 
See  illustration  given  in  20. 

(b)  Exercise.       The   teacher   writes    a   phono- 

gram as  old  on  the  board.  "We  will  now 
name  all  the  members  of  this  family  we  CMH 
think  of."  Teacher  distributes  consonant 


READING.  Gl 

cards  containing  b,  c,  f,  g,  h,  m,  s,  and  t. 
Pupils  blend  consonant  with  base  and 
pronounce  word.  Exchange  cards  and 
repeat.  Introduce  new  phonogram. 

42.  Spelling. 

There  need  not  be  a  separate  exercise  in  spelling  during 
the  first  year. 

vl)  The  spelling  exercises  already  suggested  in  the 
course  are: 

(a)  Most  of   those  given  for  the  work  in 

writing.     Learning  the  written  form 
of  a  word  is  learning  to  spell  it. 

(b)  The  word  building  exercises  described 

above. 

(2)  In  teaching  the  spelling  of  a  word  in  this  grade, 

the  following  method  should  be  used:  the 
teacher  writes  the  word  on  the  board,  erases 
it,  pupils  write  from  mental  image. 

(3)  Memory  spelling.     Pupils  write  from  memory, 

words  previously  taught  as  described  in  (2) 
above. 

(4)  Spelling  by  letter.     There  should  be  no  oral 

spelling  by  letter  the  first  year,  except  such 
as  is  voluntary  on  the  part  of  the  children. 

(5)  Syllabication,  if  the  vocabulary  of  the  book  de- 

mands it,  should  be  begun,  as  described  in 
24  n. 

•13     Occupation  and  Construction  work. 

(1)  A  pupil  should  not  be  kept  so  long  at  one  form  of 
seat  occupation  that  he  tires  of  it;  on  the  other- 
hand  he  should  not  be  hurried  to  a  new  thing 
just  as  .he  is  beginning  to  feel  the  pleasure  of  mas- 
tery of  the  old. 


62  MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OP  STUDY. 

(2)  The  envelopes  or  boxes  described  in  14  ,  are  neces- 
sary to  keep  each  pupil's  material  in  order.  Sug- 
gestions for  exercises: — 

(a)  That  given  in  15  h.      Pupil  needs  small 

word-cards  containing  all  words  used  in 
the  sentences  as  they  are  taught.  These 
can  be  arranged  end  to  end  in  the  desk, 
or  be  pasted  on  paper,  the  teacher  ruling 
the  guide  lines. 

(b)  When  a  story  of  several  sentences  has  been 

written  on  the  board  in  line  statements, 
each  child  may  be  furnished  with  a  set  of 
sentences  to  put  together  and  " match' ' 
the  story  on  the  board.  (Note— These 
copies  may  be  made  by  an  upper  class 
as  their  writing  lesson.) 

v'c)  When  making  the  transition  from  script  to 
print,  the  lesson  as  given  in  the  book 
may  be  written  by  some  one  and  cut  up. 
Pupil  will  match  the  print,  word  for  word 
or  sentence  for  sentence. 

(d)  The  tracing  of  ovals   or  of  large  writing, 

also  exercises,  later  in  the  year,  suggested 
under  independent  writing. 

(e)  Several  sets   of   words    having    the    same 

phonogram  base  given  pupils  to  pick  out 
the  sets.  Copy  each  set  or  "family"  in  a 
column. 

(f)  Pupils  fit  the  printed  letters  together  and 

"match"  the  lessons  in  the  book.  See  21. 

(g)  The  learning  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 

in  order  can  be  helped  by  the  seat  work. 
Teacher  should  have  the  alphabet  both 
in  capitals  and  small  letters  at  top  of 
blackboard  or  on  a  chart.  Children  ar- 
range the  letters  in  same  order, 


READING.  0.3 

SECOND  YEAR. 
U.  1.  Aim. 

A  higher  degree  of  mechanical   fluency,  and  the  fur- 
ther development  of  the   habits  started  in  the  firbt 
year. 
2.  Important  habits  of  pupils  upon  which  to  center  effort. 

(a)  The  habit  of  self-help  to  new  words  by  the  use  of 

phonics. 

(b)  The  habit  of   taking  in  a   number  of  words  at  a 

glance. 

(c)  The  habit  on  the  part  of  every  child  of  not  think- 

ing he  can  read  orally  until  he  has  the  thought. 

(d)  The  habit  of  reading  orally  in  a  natural,  conver- 

sational tone. 

4">.  3.  Outline  of  course. 

(a)  Phonics  and    word   building.     Exercise  three  to 
five  minutes  daily. 

(1)  Continue   the     card-drill    in    consonant 

sounds  until  pupils  can  give  all  the 
consonant  sounds  promptly,  clearly 
and  accurately. 

(2)  Teach  one  or  two  new  phonograms  from 

lists  given  in  24  j  or  others.  Be  guided 
in  the  selection  of  phonograms  for  drill, 
by  the  vocabulary  of  the  reading  book 
you  are  using.  Make  this  exereiae 
prepare  for  the  oral  reading.  Have  in- 
dividual work,  not  concert  word. 

•  "».i.    (3)  Suggestions  for  exercises. 

(a)  Teacher:  "To-day  we  will  spell  words  belong- 
ing to  this  family."  She  writes  ang.  Pu- 
pils pronounce  it  and  each  in  turn 
passes  to  the  board  and  writes  some  word 
belonging  to  the  same  "family;"  as,  bang, 
hang,  pang,  rang,  sang,  clang,  slang. 


MANUAL   OF    THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

(b)  After  a  number  of  phonograms  are  known, 
the  teacher  may  cover  the  board  with  words 
containing  these  promiscuously  arranged. 
The  teacher  names  a  "family"  and  the  pu- 
pils pass  to  the  board  quickly  in  succes- 
sion, and  make  a  ring  around  or  otherwise 
indicate  all  words  containing  that  phono- 
gram. 

(4)  Have  pupils  use  their  knowledge  of  phonics  at 
every  step.  When  the  pupil  meets  with  a  word 
in  his  reading  that  he  does  not  know,  the 
teacher  should  show  him  how  to  get  it.'  Illus- 
tration: The  word  is  mischief.  The  teacher 
writes  it  on  the  board  and  syllabicates  it  by  un- 
derlining (See  24  n),  mis  chief.  Teacher:  Both  i's 
say  i,  (giving  sound)  and  e  in  second  syllable 
doesn't  say  anything  or  is  silent."  Pupil  sounds 
m-i-s,  and  pronounces  "mis,"  then  sounds 
ch-i-f,  chif,  then  puts  the  two  syllables  together. 
Later  the  teacher  may  not  need  to  put  the  word 
on  the  board,  but  give  one  or  two  helpful  sug- 
gestions and  let  the  pupil  work  the  word  out. 
(See  Sec.  20  for  further  illustration.)  The  more 
painstaking  work  the  teacher  does  with  the  phonic 
work  in  the  lower  grades,  the  sooner  pupils  get 
the  mastery  of  this  all-important  tool  for  self-help. 

45c.  (5)  Diacritical  marking.  The  teaching  of  phonograms 
does  away  with  the  need  of  diacritical  marking  in 
the  primary  grades.  Pupils  should  be  prepared 
as  soon  as  possible  to  read  other  books  than  the 
school  readers,  and  hence  should  not  be  led  to  rely 
upon  marks  to  get  the  pronunciation  of  words. 
It  is  enough  for  the  primary  child  to  know  that  a 
certain  letter,  as  a,  has  a  number  of  sounds,  and  . 
what  they  are.  Then  when  a  new  word  is  met 


BEADING. 

with,  the  child  can  experiment  using  one  sound 
after  the  other  until  one  is  found  that  makes  a 
sensible  word. 

15(1.  (6)  Give  exercises  such  as  that  suggested  in  24  i. 
(b)  Writing,     (Once  a  day.) 

s 

}G.   (1)  Exercises  to  promote  skill. 

(a)  Those  upon    the  blackboard  for  arm-control, 

aiming  at  greater  precision  of  movement. 
The  same  at  seats. 

(b)  Pupil  writes  at  his  seat  on  paper  or  slate,  aim- 

ing at  greater  accuracy  of  letter  form.  Just 
as  soon  as  pupils  have  developed  the  power 
to  control  the  hand,  the  more  careful  making 
of  letter-forms  can  be  urged  without  danger 
of  strain.  Get  control  of  muscle  first  through 
arm  exercises,  then  train  for  finer  and  finer 
adjustment. 

IGa.  (2)  The  selection  of  words  for  copy  or  practice  should  be 
guided  by  this  principle:  Select  words  that  have 
meaning  to  the  child  when  heard  and  are  known  to 
him  by  sight;  the  muscular  effort  in  writing  will 
then  reinforce  both  associations,  and  help  the 
reading  and  the  spelling. 

(61).  (c)  The  preparatory  language  exercise.  When  the 
thought  of  the  reading  lesson  requires  this  prepara- 
tion,— as  when  the  teacher  must  explain,  show  ob- 
jects or  pictures, — there  should  be  a  separate  exer- 
cise of  five  or  ten  minutes.  When  the  thought  of 
the  reading  lesson  needs  little  development,  the 
preparation  may  be  done  in  the  first  part  of  the 
reading  period. 

(1)  Read  introductory  note  to  IV. 

(2)  Read  24d  and  e,  and  adapt  it  to  second  grade 

children. 

e— a 


66  MANUAL  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

4:6c.  (d)  The  oral  reading  exercise.     (Once  a  day.) 

(1)  To  promote  habit  two,  necessary  for  fluent  oral 

reading,  have  occasional  drills  using  the  first 
grade  sight  reading  strips  and  cards;  also 
with  the  same  aim,  use  the  curtain  for  side 
drills. 

(2)  To  promote  habit  three,  as  well  as  two,  have 

pupils  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  get  the 
thought  one  sentence  at  a  time,  and  give  the 
thought,  that  is,  read  it  orally,  looking  at 
the  teacher.  While  the  sentences  remain 
short,  this  can  easily  be  done.  When  the 
sentences  get  longer,  the  above  practice  can 
be  abandoned.  The  expression  of  the  pupil's 
reading  will  be  an  index  of  his  thought. 
(Read  27c  (2),  the  influence  of  ideals.) 

(3)  Remember  that  the  oral  reading  is  the  last  act 

of  the  child  when  dealing  with  any  thought 
unit.  It  is  the  test  of  his  mastery  of  the 
form  and  the  thought,  for  which  the  other 
exercises  have  been  preparatory.  If  the 
thought  is  clear,  and  if  habits  of  mechanical 
reading  have  not  been  started  in  the  first 
year,  the  expression  will  be  good. 

(4)  Amount  to  be  accomplished.     Read  the  hard 

parts  of  the  first  readers  begun  in  the  first 
year.  Read  the  first  parts  of  at  least  two 
second  readers.  Use  any  supplementary 
readers  or  other  matter  the  library  may  con- 
tain. 
46d,  (e)  Spelling.  (Once  a  day.) 

(1)  Written  spelling  should  predominate  in  this 

grade. 

(2)  Since  pupils  know  the  names  of  the  letters 

oral  spelling  should  also  be  practiced. 


BEADING.  O  » 

(3)   Sources  of  the  words  taught. 

(a)  Words    needed    for    written    language 

work.  Peculiar  words  or  those  needed 
only  for  a  special  series  of  language 
lessons  had  better  be  copied  by  the 
child,  so  that  his  energies  may  be  put 
upon  those  that  should  be  fixed  in  his 
spelling  vocabulary. 

(b)  A  carefully  selected  list  of  simple  com- 

mon words,  the  spelling  of  which 
should  be  made  automatic  to  hand  and 
tongue. 

4:6e.  (4)   Suggestions  about  the  spelling  in  the  written  lan- 
guage work: — 

(a)  Copying  stage.     Pupils  give  the  thoughts,  the 

teacher  writes  the  sentences,  and  the  pupils 
copy. 

(b)  Independent  stage.     Pupils  think  and  write. 

Bad  habits  of  guessing  at  the  spelling  of 
words  clear  to  the  understanding  but  new  in 
form,  are  apt  to  develop  here.  Pupils  should 
be  urged  to  use  their  knowledge  of  phonics 
in  judging  what  the  spelling  of  the  words 
may  be.  When  the  teacher  is  at  liberty  she 
should  help  the  pupil  to  the  spelling  of  all 
words  needed,  as  described  in  e  (2),  first 
grade.  If  pupils  are  early  made  to  feel  the 
importance  of  having  all  written  words 
spelled  correctly,  interest  in  the  dictionary 
is  more  easily  aroused  and  its  use  taught  in 
the  fourth  grade. 
46f.  (5)  Suggestions  about  formal  spelling. 

(a)  The  reader  is  not  the  best  source  of  word  lists 
for  spelling.  Pupils  should  not  be  expected 
to  spell  all  the  words  they  can  read. 


MANUAL   01*    THE   ELEaOiNTABY    COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

(b)  The  best  source  for  most  teachers  is  a  Celling 

book  carefully  graded,  as  to  difficulty.  The 
words  given  for  any  grade  should  be  those 
already  well-fixed  in  his  speaking  vocabu- 
lary, and  needed  for  present  use  in  his  gen- 
eral written  expression.  Mark  accented  syl- 
lables and  teach  pupils  the  significance  of 
the  mark. 

(c)  An  average  of  ten  words  a  week  should  be 

taught.     Frequent   reviews   are   necessary. 
A  word  is  known  by  a  pupil  when  he  can 
write  it,  or  spell  it  orally  without  hesitation. 
(G)  Oral  spelling.     Teacher  pronounces  the  word  once. 
Pupil  pronounces,   and  spells.     When   the   word 
contains  more  than  one  syllable  the  syllabication 
should  be  indicated  by  pausing.     (See  24n.) 
(7)    For  treatment  of  words  not  phonetic  see  24m. 
»£,  'f)   Occupation  and  construction  work. 

{!)  Independent  work  by  the  pupils. 

(a)  Pupils  can  use  the  phonics-tool  to  dig 

out  new  words  for  themselves,  and 
hence  can  do  something  with  books. 
When  the  assignment  has  properly 
prepared  them  for  it,  pupils  can  study 
their  reading  lessons. 

(b)  They  can  copy  and  write    more;    can 

draw  and  make  with    less   attention 

from  the  teacher. 

(2)  The  teacher  must  still  give  considerable  atten- 
tion to  seat  work,  and  provide  for  one  or 
more  periods  of  profitable  occupation. 

(a)  Continue  such  first  grade  exercises  as 

have  not  grown  stale. 

(b)  As  the  phonogram  drills  continue,  val- 

uable additions  should  be  made  to  the 
supply  of  word-cards  for  seat  work. 


69 

The  sorting  out  of  words  having  a 
common  phonogram  base,  and  copy- 
ing the  lists,  is  helpful  to  both  spell- 
ing and  reading. 

(c)  Children   like   to   commit   to    memory 

verses  and  short  poems  whose  thought 
has  been  made  interesting  and  clear 
by  the  teacher. 

(d)  The  library  should  have  some   books 

adapted  to  children  of  this  age.  There 
should  be  at  least  one  period  for  such 
reading. 

(e)  There    should    be    no    idle    moments. 

Hand  occupation  should  relieve  the 
periods  of  study  or  recitation  especial- 
ly in  the  last  part  of  the  day. 

THIRD   YEAR. 

7.  1.  Aim.     Same  as  for  second  year. 

2.  The  hdhits  to  be  worked  for  are  the  same. 

3.  Outline  of  course. 

? a.  (a)  Phonics,  at  least  twice  a  week. 

(1)  If  pupils  have  not  had  the  work  outlined  for  the 

first  and  second  years,  and  are  not  able  to 
help  themselves  to  new  words,  they  can  profit- 
ably take  the  same  drills  as  are  given  the 
first  and  second  year  pupils. 

(2)  If  pupils  have  had  the  phonic   work  of  earlier 

grades,  less  teaching  is  necessary,  but  vigor- 
ous drills  are  still  needed  to  give  precision  in 
pronunciation.  Towards  this  end  the  sug- 
gestions and  exercises  given  in  25,  (Imperfec- 
tions in  speech),  may  be  followed  with  good 
effect. 

(3)  Do  not  pronounce  words  for  pupils,  when  they 

can  get  the  pronunciation  by  applying  their 
knowledge  of  phonics. 


70  MANUAL  OP  THE  •nLJSKBXTAKI  OOUBai  OF  STUDY 


(4)  Word-building  and  spelling  exercise.     Teacher 

names  a  phonogram,  pupils  think  of  word, 
pronounce  and  spell  orally.  Thus:  Teacher: 
"utter."  First  pupil:  "butter,  b-u-t-t-e-r." 
Second,  "Flutter,  f-1-u-t-t-e-r,  etc. 

(5)  Impromptu    language    exercises   with    phono- 

grams. Teacher  names  a  phonogram.  Pupil 
describes  the  use  of  some  word  derived  from 
it  without  naming  the  word,  and  class  guesses 
what  it  is.  Thus:  phonogram  ack.  Pupil: 
"I  am  thinking  of  a  word  that  rhymes  with 
ack.  It  names  something  that  has  a  flat 
head,  and  a  sharp  point  and  is  very  useful 
about  the  house."  Second  pupil:  -  is 

thinking  of  tack."  Second  pupil:  "I  am 
thinking  of  a  word  that  is  used  to  describe 
people  who  are  not  careful  or  energetic;  it 
also  describes  a  rope  that  is  not  tightly 
drawn."  Third  pupil:  '  -  is  thinking  of 
slack."  The  possibilities  of  this  exercise  as 
a  means  of  language  training  will  be  apparent. 
(b)  Writing. 

(1)  See  second  grade  for  suggestions  as  to  drill. 

(2)  All  written  exercises  should  be  considered  as  ex- 

ercises in  writing. 

(a)  The  written  spelling  should  be  carefully 

done. 

(b)  The  written  language  exercises  should 

be  short  so  as  not  to  fatigue  the  pupils 
or  oblige  them  to  hurry. 

(c)  When  exercises  are  prepared  independ- 

ently by  pupil,  the  teacher  should  ac- 
cept only  the  pupil's  best.  Do  not  let 
the  practice  of  writing  during  the  day 
tear  down  what  you  are  trying  to 
build  up  in  the  writing  exercise. 


BEADING.  1 

.  (c)  Oral  reading. 

(1)  See  illustrative  exercise,  Sec.  29. 

(2)  Read  d  (3) ,  in  course  for  second  year. 

(3)  Study  —  27,  much  of  it  applies  to  the  third  grade. 

(4)  Amount  to  be  accomplished.     Finish  the  second 

readers  begun  in  the  second  grade.  Read  the 
first  part  of  two  third  readers,  and  all  of  some 
supplementary  reader  adapted  to  the  ability  of 
the  "C"  class.  The  school  library  should  con- 
tainreading  matter  suitable  for  class  use. 
Make  individual  assignments  to  pupils  from 
these  books  and  have  them  prepare  to  read 
to  the  class. 

47d.  (d)  Spelling. 

(1)  See  spelling  course  for  second  year. 

(2)  Use  the  list  for  third  grade  in  a  graded  speller, 

and  drill  for  mastery. 

(3)  Bring  pupils   to  a  fuller  understanding  of  ac- 

cent and  the  marking  of  accented  syllables  in 
words. 

47c.  (e)  Occupation. 

(1)  There  should  be  a  regular  seat  period   for  the 

study  of  the  reading  lesson,  the  same  as  for 
doing  other  things  called  for  by  the  course. 

(2)  Time  should  also  be  regularly  assigned  to  suit- 

able library  reading. 

(3)  The  children  write  answers  to  questions  given 

by  the  teacher,  who  has  put  questions  oblig- 
ing the  children  to  read  and  think  carefully; 
as,  "Do  you  think  the  boy  was  right  in  doing 
as  he  did?"  "Why?"  "What  picture  do  you 
find  in  the  third  paragraph?"  "Draw  it." 
Etc. 

(4)  Have  children  memorize  suitable  poems. 


72  MANUAL   OF    THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

NOTE. — Pupils  of  this  age  should  not  be  engaged  all  day 
with  books.  There  should  be  at  least  one  period  of  a  half-hour 
or  more,  when  some  form  of  hand  work  may  be  done.  This 
should  be  of  a  kind,  that,  when  once  started,  does  not  need 
much  attention  from  the  teacher. 

Middle  Form. 

48.  1.  Aim,  throughout  the  Middle  form: 

Development  of  power  to  learn  through  reading. 
48a.   2.  Habits  upon  which  attention  should  be  centered: 

(1)  The  habit  of  thinking  what  is  read,  which  in- 

cludes the  habit  of  imaging  pictures,  of  per- 
sons, of  places,  scenes,  as  well  as  imaging 
thought  relations. 

(2)  The  habit  of  passing  judgment  on  what  is  read, 

as  to  truth,  worth  or  beauty. 

(3)  Right  habits  in  using  the  dictionary. 

48b.  3.  Habits  more  prominent    in    the  primary  form  which 
should  not  now  be  allowed  to  decline. 

(1)  That  of  self-help  by  means  of  phonics  in  getting 

new  words; 

(2)  That  of  taking  in  a  number  of  words  at  a  glance 

that  fluency  may  be  prcmoted. 

48c.  4.  The  reading  exercise  should  be  a   daily  one  through- 
out the  Middle  form. 

48d.  5.  The  teacher    should   often   read  poetry  to  the  school, 

thus  influencing  taste  and  ideals,  and   affording  the 

children  the  pleasure  which  they  always  feel  in  the 

good  reading  of  good  verse. 

48e.   6.  For  suggestions  relating  to  habit  1  above,  see  IV,  all 

of  which  the  teacher  should  study  carefully. 
48f.   7.  The  second  habit,  that  of  passing  judgment,  will  grow 
in  the  same   atmosphere   that   promotes   the    first. 
Questions  that  will  call  for  judgment: 
(a)  What  is  the  most  important  truth  in  to-day's 
reading?    What   facts  do  you  think  worth 
remembering?    Why? 


BEADING.  73 

(b)  What    passages    seem  to  you  beautiful    in 

thought?     In  expression? 

(c)  What  things   in  the  lesson  don't  you   like? 

Why? 

(d)  How  does  this   piece  compare  in  interest  or 

value  with  others  already  studied? 

(e)  Which  do  you  like  the  best?    Why?     (Allow 

individuality  of  taste  to  manifest  itself. ) 

19.  8.  The  use  of  the  dictionary.  When  pupils  enter  the  mid- 
dle form  they  should  receive  systematic  training  in 
in  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  There  should  be  at 
least  weekly  exercises  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
end  of  making  pupils  proficient  in  the  different  ways 
indicated  below.  If  pupils  have  copies  of  Webster's 
High  School  Dictionary  for  individual  use,  the  work 
can  be  made  easier  at  the  start,  for  fourth  year 
pupils,  and  more  can  be  accomplished. 

49a.   (a)  Finding  words    rapidly.     Pupils   should  be   taught 
what  an  alphabetical  arrangement  is. 

(1)  Have  pupils  during  seat  period  take  the  words 

in  a  certain  paragraph  and  arrange  them  in 
alphabetical  order  with  reference  to  the  first 
two  letters. 

(2)  Let  this  continue  until  they  can  make  the  right 

arrangement  with  reference  to  first,  second, 
and  third  letters. 

(3)  The  spelling  lists  can  give  them  opportunity 

for  further  practice. 

(4)  Have  pupils   find   words  in  the    dictionary. 

Where  there  are  several  dictionaries  interest 
may  be  excited  by  timing  the  competitors. 
Here  comes  the  teacher's  opportunity  to 
show  pupils  how  to  handle  the  dictionary 
rightly,  by  turning  the  leaves  down  from  the 
top  and  looking  for  the  guide  words,  instead 


<  -i  MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTABY   COURSE  OF   STTTDT. 

of  pushing  the  leaves  back  and  forth  with 

wet  thumb. 

4r9b,  (b)  Finding  the  right  definition.  People  use  the  dictionary 
to  find  definitions  when  they  come  upon  a  word  in 
their  reading  which  they  do  not  understand.  Hence 
do  not  begin  this  work  with  lists  of  unrelated 
words,  but  with  words  that  occur  in  their  reading 
or  other  lessons. 

(1)  Word  is  found  in  the  dictionary.     The  teacher 

reads  and  explains  to  the  class  all  the  defini- 
tions given.  Pupils  listen  to  the  different  defi- 
nitions and  determine  which  one  fits  best,  that 
is  which  gives  satisfactory  completeness  to  the 
thought  of  the  sentence.  Thus  pupils  are 
taught  that  "Getting  definitions"  is  not  taking 
the  first  definitions  or  the  shortest  one  given, 
but  judgi-ng  which  one  is  needed  for  the  word 
as  used  in  a  particular  place. 

(2)  Formal  lists  may  be  used,  as  those  of  the  spell- 

ing lessons.  Here  the  pupil  may  be  impressed 
with  the  variety  of  usages  many  words  have. 

(a)  To  prepare  pupils  to  do  this  work,  the 

the  teacher  should  plan  one  or  more 
illustrative  lessons;  choose  some  word 
having  a  number  of  usages,  give  defi- 
nitions in  succession  illustrating  each 
with  a  sentence. 

(b)  The  teacher  may  write  sentences  upon 

the  board  illustrating  each  of  several 
definitions  of  a  word,  and  let  pupils 
study  the  dictionary  and  find  the  defi- 
nitions illustrated. 

49c.  (c)  Finding  the  right  pronunciation  of  words.  The  right 
pronunciation  of  a  word  involves  correct  elements, 
syllabication,  and  accent.  If  pupils  have  had  the 
training  outlined  here  for  the  primary  form,  this 


work  will  be  easily  done.  If  not,  special  exercises 
must  be  devoted  to  it.  These,  as  well  as  (a)  and 
(b)  above,  could  profitably  take  the  time  of  the  read- 
ing or  spelling  exercise  once  a  week. 

(1)  Teaching  the  key  words,  at  the  foot  of  the 

di  ionary  page.  The  words  selected  for 
the  key  words  are  those  most  commonly 
pronounced  correctly. 

(a)  Pupils  must  be  able  to  get  out  of  each 

of  these  words  the  element  of  which 
it  is  especially  designed  to  furnish 
the  type;  hence  he  must  be  able  to 
spell  words  by  sound.  Any  infor- 
mation the  teacher  may  need  about 
these  sounds  can  be  obtained  from 
the  Guide  to  Pronunciation  in  the 
first  part  of  the  dictionary  where  all 
these  sounds  are  described. 

(b)  Pupil  must  be  able  to  put  the  element 

found  into  the  word  in  which  he  is 
interested. 

(c)  He  must  note  syllabication  and  ac- 

cent. (Call  attention  to  the  differ- 
ence between  the  hyphen  in  com- 
pound words  and  the  mark  between 
syllables.) 

(d)  He  should  then  pronounce  the  word, 

syllable  after  syllable,  placing  accent 
where  it  belongs. 

(2)  Teaching   the   diacritical    markings.      As  a 

shorter  means  of  getting  the  pronunciation 
of  words,  the  pupil  will  learn  the  markings 
of  the  letters  as  given  in  the  key  words.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  the  diacritical 
marks  are  simply  a  convenient  means  of 
interpretation,  varying  in  different  diction- 


76  MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  O'F  STUDY. 

aries,  and  having  no  educational  value  ex- 
cept as  they  help  in  getting  the  correct  pro- 
nunciation of  words.  The  important  thing 
is  to  teach  pupils  to  use  the  markings 
found  in  the  dictionary. 
49d.  (d)  Learning  the  other  resources  of  the  dictionary. 

(1)  Noted  names  of  fiction. 

(2)  The    pronouncing    gazetteer    of    geographical 

names. 

When  authorities  disagree  in  regard  to  the  pronunciation  of 
a  geographical  name  refer  to  the  dictionary. 

(3)  The  pronouncing  biographical  dictionary. 

(4)  Pupils  may  be  interested  in  finding  out  what 

their  names  mean,  and  so  become  acquainted 
with  another  valuable  part  of  the  dictionary. 

(5)  There  may  be  occasional  need  of  knowing  the 

meaning  of  some  quotation,  word  or  phrase 
from  a  foreign  language,  and  thus  another 
interesting  section  becomes  known. 
50.  9.  The  habit  of  self-help. 

After  regular  instruction  in  the  use  of  the  dictionary 
begins,  oblige  pupils  to  apply  what  they  learn. 
Thus:  It  is  discovered  in  the  reading  class  that  a 
pupil  does  not  know  how  to  pronounce  a  word. 
Have  him  find  the  word  in  the  dictionary  and  copy 
it  upon  the  board,  syllabicated  and  marked  as 
given,  then  pronounce  it.  This  corresponds  to  the 
method  described  in  the  primary  form,  by  which 
pupils  were  taught  self-help  by  means  of  phono- 
grams. 

50a.  10.  If  pupils  are  slow  in  perception,  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  in  this  form  to  have  an  occasional  exercise 
with  the  curtain  (See  14)  to  give  practice  in  taking 
in  a  number  of  words  at  a  glance.  Another  exer- 
cise to  quicken  perception  is  to  turn  their  atten- 
tion for  a  moment  to  a  sentence  in  the  book,  and 


HEADING.  77 

then  call  for  it.     Thus:    "Third  paragraph,  first 

sentence,"     (a    moment)    "Time.       Charles,    the 

thought,"  etc. 
50b.  11.  In  support  of  point  5,  the  following  quotation  is  made 

from  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  on 

Rural  Schools: 

"Poetry  must  be  brought  in  at  every  step — the  poetry  of  the 
farm,  the  clouds,  the  winds,  the  flowers,  the  fields.  The  pupil 
will  find  that  the  poet  and  the  artist  have  embalmed  in  death- 
less prose  or  poetry,  the  commonest  things  of  earth,  air  and 
water,  by  which  he  is  surrounded.  Thin,  vapid,  sensational, 
injurious  reading  would  have  no  place  in  his  life,  if  all  reading 
were  carefully  selected  in  the  direction  of  his  aroused,  sustained 
and  educative  interests."  Page  157. 

FOURTH  YEAR. 

51.  1.  See  what  is  said  about  reading  matter  in  26b  and  c; 

also  27c,  (1). 

2.  Read  the  last  parts  of  third  readers  begun  in  the  third 

year  and  continue  with  the  first  parts  of  one  or  two 
fourth  readers.  Keep  the  reading  easy  and  read 
much. 

3.  Read  some  supplementary  reader  adapted  to  the  ability 

of  the  class. 

4.  Assign  parts  of  library  books  to  pupils  for  preparation 

and  have  them  read  their  selections  to  the  class. 

5.  What  reading  matter  is  not  well  adapted: — 

(1)  When  it  gives  a  pupil  nothing  new  to  master. 

(2)  When  it  is  so  difficult  that  he  must  plod  along  un- 

der  a  burden  of  words  not  familiar  to  him  in 
meaning  or  form. 

FIFTH  YEAR. 

52.  1.  Readers  and    supplementary    matter   adapted   to   the 

ability  of  the  pupils  as  indicated  in  course  of  Fourth 
Year. 


78  MANUAL  OF    THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE    OF   STUDY. 

2.  "Hiawatha"  is  a  type  of  masterpiece  well  adapted  to 
pupils  of  this  grade,  provided  their  work  in  the  pri- 
mary form  has  made  them  proficient  in  word  mastery. 

SIXTH  YEAR. 

53.  1.  See  suggestions  for  Fifth  Year. 

Upper  Form. 

54.  1.  Aims. 

(1)  Greater  perfection  of  the  oral  reading. 

(2)  Wider  acquaintance  with  literature. 

2.  All  the  habits  named  for  the  lower  forms  should  be  well 

established  by  the  time  the  seventh  school  year  is 
reached. 

3.  There  should  be  a  daily  reading  exercise  throughout  the 

upper  form.  Pupils  should  be  made  to  understand 
that  they  have  not  "finished  reading,"  when  they 
"have  gone  clear  through  the  reader,"  but  that  theue 
is  an  unlimited  field  of  literature,  some  larger  units 
of  which  they  should  become  acquainted  with  during 
the  time  devoted  to  reading  in  the  school. 

4.  Topic  V.  is  especially  designed  for  this  form,  to  help  in 

the  accomplishment  of  the  first  aim  named  above. 
5  4  a.  5.  The  accomplishment  of  the  second  aim  maybe  assisted 
by  the  following  suggestions: 

(a)  As  discussed  fully  in  IV.,  the  reading  must 
begin  and  never  be  allowed  to  proceed  on 
any  other  basis  than  that  of  thinking  on  the 
part  of  the  child.  The  life  of  thinking  is 
true,  vivid,  imaging.  Whether  such  imag- 
ing or  picturing  is  what  it  should  be,  that 
is,  whether  the  pupil  is  seeing  what  the 
words  of  the  page  suggest,  must  be  tested 
by  the  teacher  through  questioning  the  pu- 
pil, or  by  asking  him  to  draw,  or  make,  or 
dramatize  what  he  sees.  For  illustration 


BEADING .  79 

take  the  familiar  lines  from  "Snow  Bound' 
(in  the  part  telling  of  the  father's  reminis 
cences). 

"Where  merry  mowers,  hale  and  strong, 
Swept/sythe  on  sythe,  their  swaths  along 
The  low,  green  prairies  of  the  s«a." 
Do  the  pupils  see  the  first  mower,  the  man 
who  is  reputed  to  be  the  best  mower  in  the 
neighborhood,  or  who  thinks  himself  the 
best,  start  his  swath,  followed  in  regular 
order  by  his  first,  second,  third,  fourth  com- 
petitor in  succession?  Do  they  see  the  swaths 
of  heavy  grass  fall,  and  appreciate  the  nice 
choice  in  the  verb  "swept"?  Do  they  see  how 
the  vigor  of  the  verb,  suits  the  adjective  used 
in  describing  the  mowers,  "merry,"  "hale," 
"strong".  Do  they  feel  anything  of  the  zest 
of  this  game  of  those  old-time,  farmer-ath- 
letes of  New  England?  Is  the  difference  clear 
to  them  between  our  western  prairies  and 
the  "low,  green  prairies  of  the  sea?" 

This  takes  time,  but  it  is  the  only  treat- 
ment of  literature  that  can  be  called  reading. 
54b.  (b)  The  short  masterpieces,  and  extracts  found  in  school 
readers,  as  well  as  longer  masterpieces,  frequently 
require  that  their  proper  historical  or  geographical 
setting  be  given  before  their  study  is  under- 
taken. Thus  a  careful  map  of  the  country  is 
needed  for  the  understanding  and  clear  picturing 
of  the  "Lady  of  the  Lake,"  for  it  is  no  imaginary 
country  which  Scott  makes  the  scene  of  the  stir- 
ring events  related  in  that  poem.  The  same  is  true 
of  "Evangeline."  For  "Paul  Revere's  Ride,"  a 
map  of  Boston  and  vicinity  showing  Charleston, 
the  Charles  river,  Lexington,  Concord,  etc.,  will 
contribute  greatly  to  the  enjoyment,  and  appreci- 


SO  MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

ation  of  the  poem.  For  such  a  poem  as  "Evange- 
line"  the  historical  setting  is  also  needed,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  "Paul  Revere' s  Ride"  and  "Miles 
Standish." 

This  must  not  be  understood  as  recommending 
the  use  of  literature  for  the  purpose  of  teaching 
history  or  geography.  It  is  using  history  and  geog- 
raphy for  the  sake  of  the  literature.  How  much 
of  history,  or  geography,  or  nature  study,  or  gram- 
mar, or  discussion  of  personal  experience  is  legiti- 
mate in  a  reading  class?  Just  so  much  as  is  neces- 
sary to  make  the  thought  of  the  literature  clear,  and 
no  more.  That  the  branches  thus  incidentally 
made  to  serve  as  agents  will  profit  greatly  by  such 
use,  must  be  very  evident. 

">lc.  (c)  Do  not  spend  time  in  trying  to  make  pupils  under- 
stand those  things  in  literature  that  only  exper- 
ience and  greater  maturity  of  thought  can  bring 
them  to  appreciate.  The  teacher  should  read  and 
explain  such  passages  to  the  class,  trusting  that 
some  ideas  may  be  gained  by  the  pupils,  and  let  it 
go  at  that.  If  she  succeeds  in  leaving  in  each 
child's  heart  a  love  for  the  piece  she  has  been  teach- 
ing, time  will  remedy  the  deficiencies  in  under- 
standing; but  if  pupils  leave  the  study  with  a  feel- 
ing of  weariness  or  dislike  even  though  every  con- 
struction has  been  mastered,  the  work  must  be 
counted  a  failure.  Literature  at  its  best  form  is 
recreation.  It  must  not  be  classified  with  the 
formal  studies  as  arithmetic  or  spelling  or  gram- 
mar, where  "grind"  is  sometimes  necessary. 

~» 1.1.  (d)  The  assignment  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  work 
of  a  teacher  of  reading.     The  assignment  should:— 
(1)  Give  enough  help  about  the  next  lesson  to 
remove  the  discouraging  obstacles. 


BEADING.  SI 

(2)  Excite  interest  in  what  is  coming,  and  raise 

problems  to  be  settled  by  the  pupils  with 
the  aid  of  the  dictionary. 

(3)  Not  be  the  hasty  "take  the  next  page,"  but 

should  name  the  thought  unit  to  be  studied. 
Since  with  crowded  programs  the  reading 
time  must  be  short,  it  would  be  well,  when  the 
reading  matter  is  difficult,  to  take  the  reading 
period  one  day  for  the  assignment,  and  the  next 
day  for  testing  the  result  of  the  study  and  the 
oral  reading. 

What  teachers  want  to  do  is  to  stimulate 
energetic  and  well-directed  effort  in  their  pupils. 
Self-activity  is  the  chief  aim  in  a  good  assign- 
ment. 

54:6.  (e)  By  carefully  preparing  according  to  these  suggestions, 
a  skillful  teacher  may  make  even  the  old  reader 
— "finished",  read  through  and  dead,  take  on  new 
life  and  become  a  thing  of  interest.  To  do  this 
means  more  work  for  the  teacher;  but  it  is  a  sort 
of  work  that  directly  promotes  mental  and  spirit- 
ual growth.  It  is  a  work  for  which  no  one  reaps 
such  a  large  compensation  as  the  teacher  herself 


7-A 


82  MAMJA..L   0*    THE    El-JiAlL-N  IARY    COUfiSK    OF    STUDY. 


LANGUAGE. 


55.  "Most  of  the  forms  of  our  common  speech,  are  things  of 
a  type  so  fixed  by  repetition  as  almost  to  be  classed  as  reflex 
actions.  ...  I  find  my  tongue  inevitably  falling  into  its 
old  phrases  and  repeating  almost  literally  what  I  have  said  be- 
fore."— Prof.  James. 

56.  I.  Aim. 

To  help  the  child  form  the  habit  of  using  the  English  lan- 
guage correctly. 

1.  Rouse  the  child  to  think  and  guide  him  in  his  thinking. 

2.  Lead  the  child  to  observe  what  is  going  on  around  him. 

3.  Stimulate  the  child  to  tell  his  thoughts  to  others. 

4.  Aid  the  child  in  acquiring  a  working  vocabulary. 

5.  Cultivate   a  love  for   the  beautiful  in  nature,  literature, 

and  art. 

57.  II.  General  Suggestions. 

1.  In  language  work,  "The  great  difficulty  is  not  in  teaching 
what  correct  usage  is,  but  in  bringing  about  the  incorporation 
of  correct  forms  into  daily  unconscious  habits."     Habits  are 
formed  by  the  repetition  of  the  same  act  or  acts.     The  teacher 
should  remember  that  language  is  not  a  gift  but  an  acquisi- 
tion, and  that  the  power  to  speak  and  write  the  English  lan- 
guage comes   only    through  much  practice  in   speaking  and 
writing  it. 

2.  When  the  child  first  comes  to  school,  he  has  already  ac- 
quired two  invaluable  mental  possessions: 

a.  A  store  of  knowledge  consisting  of  facts:  ideas,  and 

images  which  have  come  to  him  naturally  through 
the  experiences  of  his  home-life. 

b.  A  stock  of  words  with  which  he  expresses  in  his  own 

way  these  facts,  ideas,  and  images. 


LANGUAGE.  83 

3.  From  these  two  main  facts  the  child's  school  culture  is  to 
have  its  beginning,  and  his  teacher  has  before  her  a  two-fold 
tusk: 

a.  She  must  strive  to  enlarge  and  clear  up  this  store  of 

facts,  ideas,  and  images,  with  which  the  child  comes 
to  her,  and  make  them  more  full  and  varied;  that 
is,  she  must  stimulate  and  direct  the  growth  of  his 
mind  and  develop  his  language  power  through  the 
work  she  presents  to  him  in  his  studies  in  school. 

b.  She  must  strive  to  enlarge  and  improve  his  vocabu- 

lary; enlarge  it  by  teaching  him  words  with  which 
to  express  his  thoughts;  improve  it  by  helping  him 
to  make  his  language  clear  and  definite. 

4.  The  chief  means  available  for  developing  the  child's  power 
of  expression  are  conversation  and  reproduction.    The  free  and 
easy  conversation  between  the  child  and   his  classmates,  or 
with  his  teacher,  is  the  most  important  means,  and  may  be 
made   to  yield    excellent    results,   if  the  teacher  is   careful  in 
guiding  the  work.     Conversations  following  the  morning  talk 
or  the  morning  story,  or  growing  out  of  some  nature  work  or 
picture  study,  may  be  the  means  of  leading  the  child  to  tell   of 
his  own  personal  experiences,  or  what  he  knows  of  the  subject. 
He  may  he  led  to  invent  or  enlarge  upon  the  thought  until  he 
gains  confidence  and  fluency.    In  the  Middle  and  Upper  forms 
this    work   may   easily  lead    to   valuble    written   composition 
work. 

Reproduction  of  stories  told  by  the  teacher  is  a  more  difficult 
task;  but  if  the  right  kind  of  stories  are  chosen,  and  the  teacher 
makes  careful  preparation  to  use  them,  excellent  results  will 
follow.  This  reproductive  work  will  furnish  material  for  writ- 
ten composition  work  in  the  advanced  grades. 

5.  As  ideas  should  precede  words  in  all  language  work,  so 
suitable  oral  expression  should  precede  written  work.  Pupils 
who  can  state  clearly  what  they  think  or  know,  and  can  then 
write  correctly  what  they  have  said,  have  the  best  results  of 
careful  grammatical  training. 


84  MANUAL  OP   THE  EOUEMBNTABY   COURSE   OF  STUDY. 

6.  In  all  oral  work  have  pupils  talk  to  the  teacher  and  class- 
mates.    Avoid   aimless,    disinterested   talking   by  having  the 
pupil  talk  about  something  in  which  he  is  interested,  and  about 
which  he  knows  something  to  tell  to  his  listeners.     Make  him 
feel  that  he  has  a  message  to  deliver.     He  will  then  feel  that 
he  is  called  upon  to  put  his  thoughts  into  the  best  language  of 
which  he  has  command  in  order  to  make  his  hearers   under- 
stand his  story. 

7.  The  teacher  should  know  the  fundamental  laws  of  compo- 
sition in  order  to  be  able  to  guide  her  pupils. 

a.  The  law  of  Unity  guides  in  the  sifting  and  selecting 

of  material  so  that  each  part  contributes  its  share 
to  the  central  thought  of  the  sentence,  paragraph, 
or  whole  composition. 

b.  The  law  of  Selection  requires  that  only  such  things 

shall  be  chosen  as  are  necessary  to  the  clear, 
forcible  presentation  of  thought. 

c.  The  law  of  Order  and  Arrangement  requires  such 
a  logical   presentation  that  the  thoughts    shall 
not  be   confused  one  with    another,    but    shall 
enable  the  hearer  or  reader  to  get  a  clear  and  pro- 
gressive mental  picture  of  the  story  as  it  is  pre- 
sented. 

d.  The  law  of  Proportion  demands  that  each  thing  shall 

have  its  due  share  of  attention. 

$b.  III.  Kinds  of  language  work  which  should  be  provided  for 

all  forms. 

1.  Constructive,  which  has  to  do  with  the  use  of 
language  effectively  for  the  accomplishment  of 
a  given  purpose.  It  is  oral  or  written  composi- 
tion. The  conversation  lessons,  in  the  primary 
form,  and  the  oral  and  written  composition 
work,  in  the  middle  and  upper  forms,  are  de- 
signed for  this  purpose. 


I^NOUAQB.  85 

2.  Technical,  which  includes  all  phases  of  grammati- 
cal accuracy.  In  the  primary  and  middle 
forms  this  work  is  largely  in  correcting  errors 
in  the  pupil's  oral  or  written  language  without 
giving  the  laws  of  grammar  covering  such 
usage.  Here  the  teacher's  knowledge  of  gram- 
mar is  of  practical  use.  "It  is  constant  use 
and  practice,  under  never-failing  watch  and 
correction,  that  makes  good  writers  and  speak- 
ers; the  application  of  direct  authority  is  the 
most  efficient  corrective.  Grammar  has  its  part 
to  contribute,  but  rather  in  the  higher  than  in 
the  lower  grades.  One  must  be  a  somewhat 
reflective  user  of  language  to  amend  even  here 
and  there  a  point  by  grammatical  reasons;  and 
no  one  ever  changed  from  a  bad  speaker  to  a 
good  one  by  applying  the  rules  of  grammar  to 
what  he  said,"  In  the  upper  form  the  pupils 
should  be  taught  the  fundamental  laws  govern- 
ing the  use  of  the  English  language,  and  be 
taught  to  apply  these  laws  to  his  own  language. 

3.  Interpretative,  which  aims  to  open  the  mind  to  a 
realization  of  the  power  of  language.  In  the 
primary  and  middle  forms  this  work  may  be 
done  in  connection  with  the  stories  and  poems 
told  to  the  children  by  the  teacher,  and  repro- 
duced by  the  children;  in  the  nature  study 
lessons,  and  in  the  conversation  lessons  about 
the  pictures  studied.  In  the  upper  form  the 
work  will  assume  a  more  formal  shape  in  the 
work  with  literature  and  in  the  further  study 
of  pictures. 


86  MANUAL  OF   T1IE  ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

Primary  Form. 

£0.  IV.  First  year. 

A.  Conversational  lessons  on  familiar  experiences 
and  about  familiar  things. 

13.  Reproduction  of  stories  told  or  read  to  the  chil- 
dren by  the  teacher. 

C.  Invention  of  oral  stories  suggested  by  pictures, 
nature  study,  etc. 

1.  Drawing  on  blackboard  or  paper  to  illus- 

trate stories  told. 

2.  Exercises  in  the  use  of  "a"  and  "an"  with 

nouns;  as,  an  apple,  an  orange,  an 
eagle,  a  tree,  a  man,  etc. 

3.  Use    of   common   verbs    to    agree    with 

singular  and   plural  nouns;  as,   "is," 
and  "are,"  "was"  and  "were." 

4.  Correct  a  list  of  selected  errors;  as    "I 

aint",  "he  don't",  "hadn't  ought"  etc. 

5.  Use  of  capital  letter  at  the  beginning,  and 

period  at  the  end  of  sentence  taught 
incidentally  in  connection  with  work 
from  blackboard  in  reading. 

6.  Copying  of  words   anci  simple  sentences 

chosen  by  the  teacher  from  the  reading 
and  other  lessons. 

60.  T.  Second  year. 

1.  Continued  oral  work  with  stories  and  pictures  begun 

in  the  first  year. 

2.  Simple  written  composition  work  begun.     Compose 

and  write  simple  sentences  based  on  some  of  the 
work  done  in  school,  or  on  some  personal  exper- 
ience of  the  child  in  school  or  at  home. 


LANGUAGE.  87 

3.  Knowledge  of  the  use  of  capital   letters  extended. 

This  work  can  be  done  in  connection  with  the 
work  in  reading. 

a.  in  beginning  sentences  and  proper  names; 

b.  the  first  word  in  lines  of  poetry; 

c.  in  dates,  days  of  the  week,  and  months  of 

the  year; 

d.  in  addresses  and  titles. 

4.  Teach  correct  use  of  "this"  and  "that",  "these"  and 

"those";  as,  "this  kind  of  apple",  "that  sort  of 
men";  "these  kinds  of  cloth"  "those  sorts  of  ap- 
ples." 

5.  Teach  correct  use  of  common  adverbs;  as,  "slowly", 

"quickly",  "well." 

6.  Teach    the    correct    forms  of   pronouns  after  "is" 

and  "are",  "was"  and  "were";  as,  "It  is  I";  "It  was 
she." 

7.  Teach  the  use  of  quotation  marks  in  connection  with 

the  work  in  reading,  and  in  the  story  work. 

8.  Notice  the  use  of  punctuation  marks  in  the  reading 

lessons. 

9.  Teach  some  of  the  common  abbreviations  met  with 

in  the  other  work  of  the  school. 

10.  Memorize  choice  selections  from  prose  and  poetry. 

11.  Copy  memorized  verses  and  proverbs,  and  give  care- 

ful attention  to  the  use  of  capitals  and  punctua- 
tion marks. 

01.  VI.  Third  year. 

1.  Oral  work  with  stories  and  pictures  should  be  con- 
tinued. Longer  stories  may  now  be  used  and  the 
children  held  more  closely  to  exact  language  in 
reproduction.  More  critical  work  can  now  be 
done  with  the  pictures. 


MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   OOTJBflB  OF  BTTJDT. 

2.  Short  written  exercises. 

a.  Work  out  with  the  children  a  series  of  simple 

related  sentences  from  a  familiar  story  or 
from  some  other  lesson. 

b.  Write  these  sentences  on  the  blackboard.     Call 

attention  to  the  spelling,  capital  letters,  and 
punctuation. 

c.  Have   the  children   copy   these  sentences  cor- 

rectly. 

d.  Later  help   the    children  combine  these  sen- 

tences into  complex  or  compound  sentences, 
and  then  into  a  paragraph  on  the  black- 
board. 

e.  Have  the  children  copy  the  paragraph. 

3.  Children    write  short  exercises  on  the  blackboard, 

drawn  from: 

(a)  stories  told  by  the  teacher  and  reproduced 

by  the  children; 

(b)  nature-study  lessons,  and  excursions; 

(c)  home  geography  descriptions; 

(d)  the  reading  lesson. 

4.  Review  work  with  pronouns,   verbs   and  adverbs, 

and  extend  this  work. 

5.  Teach  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  to  show  ownership. 

Examine  lessons  in  readers  to  find  illustrations 
of  this  use.  Dictate  exercises  calling  for  this 
use  of  the  apostrophe;  as,  John's  knife,  Mary's 
doll,  Charles's  book. 

6.  Extend  the  list  of  abbreviations. 

7.  Teach  spelling  and  use  of  the  following  homonyms: 

rode    road    rowed 
sail    sale 
there    their 
to    too    two 
no    know 
pail    pale 


89 


whole    hole 
bough    bow 
pear    pair    pare 
week    weak 
won    one 
vale    vail    veil 
8.  Have  children  commit  to  memory  at  least  five  good 

poems  during  the  year. 
62.  VII.  Suggestions  as  to  method. 

1.  The  first  step  to  be  employed  by  the  teacher  in 

teaching  language  is  by  means  of  conversations 
(IV., 1)  with  the  pupils  on  suitable  subjects  sug- 
gested by  the  incidents  of  every  day  life  in 
school  and  out  of  school,  as,  "My  "Doll,"  "Our 
Dog,"  "What  I  saw  at  the  Circus,"  "What  I 
got  for  Christmas,"  "Where  I  went  on  the 
Fourth  of  July,"  "What  I  like  to  play,"  etc. 
Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  talk-  freely. 
"Self-expression  is  natural  to  the  child;  it  is  a 
form  of  self-activity  in  which  he  delights,  pro- 
viding we  touch  his  real  interests,  or  wisely 
tax  his  ingenuity."  In  correcting  errors,  the 
teacher  must  be  careful  not  to  discourage  the 
child;  he  must  not  be  nagged.  At  first  the 
teacher  will  try  to  correct  by  example,  find- 
ing unsuspected  openings  for  substituting  the 
correct  for  the  incorrect  form  which  the  child 
has  used,  thus  winning  the  child's  ear  to  the 
right  expression,  and  leading  him  to  use  un- 
consciously the  correct  form.  While  the 
language  used  by  the  teacher  should  be  some- 
what in  advance  of  that  used  by  the  child 
habitually,  it  should  at  all  times  be  within 
his  comprehension. 

2.  The  second  effective  means  of  teaching  language 

is  the  reproduction  of  stories  in  prose  and 


90  MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENT  Alt  Y   COUBSE  OF  STUDY. 

verse  (IV.,  2).  In  the  first  year  the  stories 
should  be  simple  ones  that  appeal  to  little 
children.  With  children  of  foreign  parent- 
age, who  are  just  learning  to  speak  English, 
stories  like  the  "Little  Red  Hen,"  "The  Old 
Woman  and  Her  Pig,"  "The  House  That 
Jack  Built,"  "The  Story  of  the  Three  Little 
Pigs,"  and  "The  Three  Bears,"  because  of 
of  the  repetition  of  common  words  and 
phrases,  are  especially  helpful  in  aiding  the 
child  to  acquire  a  vocabulary.  In  later  years 
longer  and  more  advanced  stories  selected 
from  fairyland,  mythology,  fiction,  history, 
biography,  and  literature  may  be  used  to 
good  advantage  in  language  work,  and  at  the 
same  time  give  the  child  a  fund  of  valuable 
information. 

To  secure  the  best  results  the  stories  should 
be  told,  not  read,  to  the  children.  To  read  a 
story  with  the  covers  of  a  book  between  the 
face  of  the  teacher  and  the  faces  of  the  listen- 
ing children  falls  far  short  of  producing  the 
best  results.  The  teacher's  every  facial  ex- 
pression as  she  tells  an  interesting  story  is  an 
element  of  vital  interest  to  the  listening 
child.  The  story  becomes  more  interesting 
and  real  because  of  the  living  part  that  the 
teacher  takes  in  it,  and  if  she  is  in  full  sym- 
pathy with  it  she  will  make  the  children  feel 
that  the  story  is  worth  learning  to  tell  to 
others. 

After  selecting  the  story  she  is  to  tell, 
the  teacher  should  become  a  master  of  it. 
She  should  read  it  over  and  over  again  until 
its  facts  and  episodes  are  perfectly  familiar, 
and  she  can  reproduce  it  easily  without 


LANGUAGE.  91 

the  strained  effect  of  a  recitation.  She  must 
have  the  central  thought  of  the  story  so  well 
in  mind  that,  if  the  children  fail  to  grasp  any 
idea  in  it,  she  can  call  up  some  familiar  ob- 
ject or  experience  to  make  the  meaning  clear, 
without  herself  becoming  confused  in  telling 
the  story.  For  it  is  after  all  by  the  teacher's 
manner  of  speech  that  she  will  do  most  to 
cultivate  right  habits  in  her  children.  The 
fundamental  need  in  story  telling  is  simplicity 
and  clearness  of  thought  and  language  com- 
bined with  a  pleasing  and  attractive  manner. 
The  teacher  must  be  strict  with  herself  in 
this  matter  and  see,  while  preparing  the 
story,  that  the  language  is  clear  •  and  easily 
within  the  comprehension  of  her  children. 

The  right  presentation  of  the  story  may 
demand  many  things  besides  language.  Pic- 
tures, blackboard  sketching,  gestures,  facial 
expression,  and  dramatic  impersonation,  may 
all  be  needed  to  produce  the  right  effect.  The 
teacher  should  plan  carefully  beforehand 
which  of  these  helps  she  is  going  to  employ, 
and  she  will  find  it  advisable  to  rehearse  the 
whole  matter  before  going  before  her  class. 

When  the  teacher  has  her  story  so  well  in 
hand  that  it  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  per- 
sonal experience,  she  should  tell  it  to  her 
pupils,  simply,  directly,  dramatically  and 
with  zest,  using  language  so  simple  as  to 
make  the  word  pictures  vivid  enough  for  each 
little  listener  to  grasp.  One  can  tell  on  looking 
into  the  faces  of  children  whether  or  not  they 
are  following  the  recital  of  a  story,  and  the 
teacher  can  in  different  ways  attract  the  at- 
tention by  questions  or  appropriate  gestures. 


MJLffUAi  OF   THB  BIxBaOJNTABY   OOTTBSE  OF  STITDT. 

As  to  reproduction,  any  story  that  is  worth 
telling  to  children  should  be  retold  by  them. 
The  main  purpose  in  telling  the  story  is  to 
have  the  children  reproduce  it.  We  CMIJ 
know  only  by  their  expression  what  impres- 
sions they  have  gained,  and  it  is  through 
their  desire  to  express  that  they  gain  power 
to  talk.  It  may  be  necessary  to  tell  the  same 
story  two  or  three  times  before  calling  upon 
the  children  to  retell  it  to  the  teacher  or  to 
their  classmates. 

In  getting  the  children  to  tell  the  story,  the 
teacher  may  ask  frhe  children  questions  about 
the  way  in  which  the  story  began;  how  they 
would  tell  it  at  home;  or  she  may  start  to  tell 
it  and  gradually  work  up  an  interest  on  their 
part  to  try  to  help  her  tell  it.  After  a  little 
experience,  both  the  teacher  and  the  children 
will  find  the  story  work  some  of  the  most  de- 
lightful as  well  as  most  profitable  work  in 
school. 

While  the  children  are  telling  the  story,  the 
teacher  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  errors  in 
the  use  of  English,  some  of  which  she  may 
correct  by  suggestion  after  the  child  is 
through  talking.  He  should  not  be  inter- 
rupted while  he  is  telling  the  story  to  correct 
errors  in  the  use  of  language.  Such  inter- 
ruption destroys  the  effect  of  the  work  and  is 
apt  to  make  the  child  timid  about  trying  to 
talk  connectedly  about  anything  before  the 
teacher.  The  teacher  should  make  a  list  of 
the  common  errors.  This  list  should  form  a 
basis  for  future  language  work.  (IV.,  4.) 


LANGUAGE.  §3 

Stories  suitable  for  the  Primary  Form, 

63.  First  year. 

The  Story  of  the  Three  Little  Pigs. 

The  Story  of  the  Three  Bears. 

The  Old  Woman  and  Her  Pig. 

The  Little  Red  Hen. 

The  House  That  Jack  Built. 

The  Ant  and  the  Dove. 

The  Fox  and  the  Crow. 

The  Fox  and  the  Grapes. 

The  Ugly  Duckling. 

How  the  Woodpecker  Got  His  Red  Head. 

The  Story  of  Hiawatha's  Childhood. 

64.  Second  year. 

Little  R*d  Ridinghood. 

Cinderella. 

Little  One  Eye,  Little  Two  Eye,  and  Little  Three  Eje, 

The  Anxious  Leaf. 

Puss  in  Boots. 

How  the  Little  Boy  Got  His  Shirt. 

Where  the  Christmas  Tree  Grew. 

The  Street  Musicians. 

Whittington  and  His  Cat. 

65.  Third  year. 

The  Wooden  Horse. 

Story  of  William  Tell. 

Ulysses  and  the  Bag  of  Wind* 

Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin. 

The  Holy  Night. 

The  Story  of  Jacob. 

The  Christ  Child. 

The  Story  of  the  Pilgrims. 

The  Story  of  Columbus. 

The  Story  of  John  Smith. 


94  MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY    OOUBSS  OF  STUDY. 

66.  3.  Pictures  furnish  another  helpful  means  of  presenting 
language  work.  (IV.,  3.)  In  order  to  make  the  right  use  of 
pictures,  the  teacher  must  have  a  definite  purpose  in  mind, 
and  definite  means  at  hand  to  accomplish  that  purpose.  If 
she  chooses  her  picture  with  care,  plans  definite  questions, 
and  has  definitely  in  her  own  mind  what  she  wants  the  child 
to  gain  from  the  study,  a  picture  may  be  made  to  serve  in  de- 
veloping a  subject,  in  suggesting  new  thoughts  to  the  pupils, 
and  afford  an  opportunity  for  the  expression  of  the  knowledge 
gained. 

The  purpose  of  the  lesson  on  a  picture  should  be  to  lead  the 
children  to  observe,  to  think,  and  to  express  their  thoughts. 
Any  lesson  that  does  these  things  contains  the  elements  of  a 
good  lesson.  The  teacher  must  keep  constantly  in  mind  that 
the  purpose  of  language  work  is  to  get  the  child  to  talk;  to  use 
language,  but  picture  study  will  do  more  than  this,  it  will 
awaken  a  love  for  and  an  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  in  art. 

The  simplest  picture  lessons  are  those  in  which  the  child 
describes  what  he  sees  in  the  picture.  He  will  at  first  merely 
state  what  he  sees.  ("At  the  Watering  Trough,"  Dagnan- 
Bouveret)  "I  see  a  boy,"  "I  see  two  horses,"  "I  see  a  watering 
trough."  These  statements  show  that  he  sees  the  picture  as  a 
collection  of  isolated  objects  and  not  as  a  group.  By  question- 
ing the  teacher  should  lead  the  child  to  see  the  relation  of  the 
different  objects,  one  to  the  other,  and  to  talk  about  the  picture 
as  a  whole.  The  statements  will  at  first  be  in  simple  sen- 
tences which  the  teacher  will  help  the  children  to  arrange  and 
combine  into  a  connected  statement.  Later  in  this  work,  the 
children  may  write  these  sentences  on  the  blackboard  as  a  les- 
son in  written  composition. 

A  picture  may  also  be  used  as  a  basis  of  an  imaginary  story. 
The  order  of  work  in  such  lessons  should  be,  first,  observation; 
second,  thought;  third,  imagination;  and  fourth  narration.  In 
order  to  make  the  work  valuable,  the  teacher  must  decide  upon 
the  line  of  story  she  wishes  to  develop  from  the  picture,  and 
then  carefully  hold  the  children  to  the  story  she  has  in  mind. 


LANGUAOR.  95 

Unless  she  does  this  their  imagination  will  oftentimes  lead 
them  to  ramble  far  from  the  story  upon  which  they  are  work- 
ing. After  the  story  has  been  worked  out  a  sentence  or  two 
at  a  time  by  the  different  children  in  the  class,  they  should  be 
called  on  to  tell  the  whole  story  in  connected  form.  In  the 
middle  and  upper  forms  imaginative  stories  from  pictures  may 
furnish  material  for  written  composition  work. 

The  pictures  for  these  lessons  should  be  selected  with  care. 
They  should  contain  few  objects,  in  order  that  the  description 
may  be  centralized  and  complete.  The  subject  should  be  one 
in  which  the  children  will  be  naturally  interested;  not  a  land- 
scape or  a.  village,  but  a  scene  which  represents  life  and  ac- 
tion,— child-life,  if  possible.  It  should  suggest  good  thoughts 
and  be  artistically  good.  The  pictures  need  not  be  expensive. 
Excellent  material  for  this  work  may  be  found  in  the  Perry 
pictures,  or  the  Brown  pictures  at  one  cent  each. 

67.   A  suggestive  list  of  pictures  for  use  in  the  primary  form: 
The  Gleaners,  Millet. 
Feeding  Her  Birds,  Millet. 
The  Churning,  Millet. 
Shepherdess,  Millet. 
The  First  Steps,  Millet. 
Picture  of  the  Puritans,  Bonghton. 
The  Madonna  of  the  Chair,  Raphael. 
The  Sistine  Madonna,  Raphael. 
Saved,  Landseer. 
The  Pet  Bird,  Meye  von  Bremen. 
Can't  You  Talk,  Holmes. 
At  the  Watering-Trough,  Dagnan-Bouveret. 
The  Haymakers'  Rest,  Dupre. 
The  Cat  Family,  Adam. 
The  Sheepfold,  Jacque. 
The  Melon-Eaters,  Murillo. 
The  Grape-Eaters,   Murillo. 


96  MANUAL,  OF   THI  HLJDMHrTABY   OOUESE  OF   STTTOY. 

68.  4.  Much  of  the  technical  language  work  called  for  in  the 
Primary  Form  may  be  done  in  connection  with  the  conversa- 
tion lessons,  the  story  work,  the  work  with  pictures,  and  with 
the  work  in  reading. 

68a.  The  teacher  should  strive  for  good  results  in  oral  work 
at  first  and  be  in  no  haste  to  get  the  children  to  "write  compo- 
sitions." The  failure  to  do  good  work  in  composition  is  at- 
tributable to  the  following  causes: 

1.  too  much  written  work  is  asked  for, 

2.  it  is  too  labored,  because  we  press  for  an  excel- 

lence in  form  not  to  be    expected    from    the 
young, 

3.  the  compositions  are  often  too  long;  a  sentence  is 

long  enough  for  the  first  year;  a  short   para- 
graph at  the  end  of  the  third  year, 

4.  wrong  topics  are  chosen,  depriving  the  work  of 

reality  and  interest  to  the  child. 

If  the  teacher  follows  the  outline  of  the  Course  of  Study  she 
will  avoid  these  errors.  In  the  beginning  we  should  expect 
from  children,  rough,  free,  hearty  work  in  writing.  This  does 
not  mean  slovenly  careless  work;  but  it  does  mean  sincere, 
childlike  work. 

(Chubb,  pp.  106-107.) 

68b.  Children  should  be  encouraged  to  sketch  on  blackboard 
and  paper  to  illustrate  the  stories  told  in  language  work. 
Much  of  this  work  will  of  necessity  be  crude,  but  the  use  of 
the  hand  in  doing  this  kind  of  work  will  help  greatly  in  giv- 
ing the  child  facility  in  the  use  of  his  hand  in  later  writing 
lessons,  and  it  also  teaches  him  a  fruitful  means  of  expres- 
sion. 

68c.  In  fixing  correct  forms  of  expression,  the  eye  as  well  as 
the  ear  and  vocal  organs,  should  be  made  familiar  with  them. 
To  those  pupils  who  remember  best  in  visual  images,  this 
will  be  especially  helpful.  As  soon  as  children  <ye  uble  to 


97 

read  well  from  the  blackboard,  exercises  similar  to  the  follow- 
ing should  be  made  the  subject  of  frequent  concert  and  indi- 
vidual drills: 

an  apple, 

an  orange, 

a  knife, 

a  book, 

a  pen. 

Is  it  I?    Yes,  it  is  I. 

Is  it  they?    No,  it  is  not  they. 

68d.  Conversation  lessons  should  be  arranged  between  pupil 
and  classmates  or  teacher  calling  for  these  and  other  expres- 
sions which  give  trouble;  as 

Is  that  you  John?     Yes,  it  is  I. 

Teacher:     John  give  Henry  the  book. 

John:     I  gave  Henry  the  book. 

Henry:  John  gave  me  the  book. 

The  following  general  plan  to  aid  the  pupil  to  form  the 
habit  of  correct  usage  has  been  recommended  as  sound  in 
principle  and  serviceable  in  practice: 

1.  Provide  for  exercises  that  require  correct  use  of  a  form 

commonly  misused. 

2.  Call  attention  to  the  right  form  to  be  used. 

3.  Secure  repetition  of  Che  correct  form. 

In  later  work,  in  order  to  make  the  habit  of  correct  usage 
an  increasingly  intelligent  usage,  the  teacher  should: 

1.  Ask  pupils  to  tell  what  form  has  been  used  and  how  it 

was  used. 

2.  Lead  to  a  simple  statement  of  a  direction  for  its  use. 

3.  Require  further  repetition  to  fix  the  habit. 

68e.  Frequent  lessons  will  be  required  to  master  the  homo- 
nyms which  are  met  with  in  all  of  the  work  in  the  different 
grades.  There  is  no  need  to  anticipate  the  use  of  these  words 
before  they  are  met  with  in  some  lesson.  Then  the  attention 
ol  the  children  should  be  called  to  them  and  they  may  be  made 

8— a 


98  MANUAL  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

the  occasion  for  a  drill  exercise,  somewhat  as  follows:  "In  our 
lesson  today  we  find  three  words  which  sound  alike,  but  are 
spelled  differently  and  have  different  meanings".  "Do  you  re- 
member what  they  are?"  "Rode,  road  and  rowed." 

The  teacher  may  now  put  the  words  in  sentences  on  the 
blackboard,  illustrating  their  different  uses. 

I  rode  my  bicycle  to  school  this  morning. 

I  rode  in  a  carriage  yesterday. 

The  road  in  front  of  the  school  house  is  dusty. 

The  team  came  along  the  road. 

I  rowed  a  boat  on  the  lake  last  summer. 

My  papa  rowed  the  boat  while  I  fished. 
Have  the  children  learn  the  spelling  of  the  words,  and  write 
them  in  sentences  on  the  blackboard.     Drill  on  them  often  so 
that  the  children  may  become  accustomed  to  writing  the  words 
correctly. 

69.  5.  The  poems  taught  to  children  may  be  made  a  source 
of  pleasure  and  strength  to  the  children  in  their  language 
work.  No  poem  should  be  taught  for  its  rhythm  alone,  al- 
though the  rhythm  should  furnish  much  enjoyment,  but 
every  line  should  be  full  of  meaning  to  the  child.  The  teacher 
should  repeat  the  entire  poem  to  the  children  emphasizing  the 
expression. 

The  word  pictures  in  the  poem  should  be  made  clear  to  the 
child  while  he  is  learning  it,  and  these  pictures  should  be 
called  up  in  his  mind  every  time  he  repeats  the  poem.  Do  not 
teach  the  poems  line  by  line,  but  thought  by  .thought,  and  help 
the  pupil  to  give  expression  to  the  thought  when  he  repeats  the 
poem.  Review  the  poems  learned  often  enough  to  keep  them 
in  mind. 

69a.  A  Suggestive  List  of  Poems  for  the  Primary  Form. 
The  Tree.     Bjornson. 
The  Owl  and  the  Pussy  Cat.     Lippincott. 
Hang  up  the  Baby's  Stocking.     Miller. 
Stars  and  Daisies.     Sherman. 


99 

September.    Jackson. 

Thistledown.     Buckram. 

The  Ferns. 

Autumn  Fires.     Sherman. 

Kris  Kringle's  Travels.     Best. 

The  Bright  Side.    Macdonald. 

Twinkle,  Twinkle,  Little  Star. 

If  I  Knew.     My  man. 

Minnie  and  Winnie.     Tennyson. 

Lady  Moon.     Hough  ton. 

The  Cow.     Stevenson. 

Clovers.     Brown. 

Seven  Times  One.     Ingelow. 

6.  The  committee  of  fifteen  emphasizes  the  importance  of  the 
study  of  plant  life  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  the  commit- 
tee of  ten  devotes  much  space  to  a  consideration  of  this  phase 
of  nature  work.     Under  the  course  of  study  in  nature  work 
will  be  found  many  suggestions  to  the  teacher  who  is  on  the 
lookout  for  material  for  language  work. 

7.  The  work  outlined  in  History  and  Geography  for  the  Pri- 
mary Form  will  afford  excellent  material  for  language  work. 

Middle  Form. 
70.  First  Year. 

1.  Continue  oral  work  with  stories,  pictures,  and  poems 

begun  in  the  Primary  Form. 

2.  More  extended  work  in  written  composition  may  now 

be  undertaken.     The  written  work  should  follow 
and  be  based  on  the  oral  work. 

3.  Review  the  work  with  pronouns,  and  teach  the  cor- 

rect use  of  "who,"  "which,"  and  "that"  as  conjunc- 
tive pronouns. 

4.  Give  a  series   of   lessons   including   the   homonyms 

taught  in  the  Primary  Form,    Teach  other  hom- 
onyms. 


100         MAJSUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

5.  Begin  the  work  of  developing  the  chief  rules  for  form- 

ing the  plurals  of  nouns. 

6.  In  conversational  lessons,  use  sentences  calling  foi 

the  correct  use  of  "as"  and  "like." 

7.  Have  frequent  exercises  calling  for  the  use  of  irreg- 

ular verbs. 

8.  Continue  the  work  with  the  apostrophe,  teaching  its 

use  in  common  contractions,  as  "o'clock,"  "'tis," 
"don't,"  etc. 

9.  Begin  work  with  synonyms  and  antonyms,  as  "large — 

big — great;"  "tiny — little — small;"  "proud — hum- 
ble;" "weak — strong."  Have  pupils  frame  sen- 
tences illustrating  these  similar  and  contrasted 
meanings. 

10.  Letter  writing  begun.     Special  attention  should  be 

paid  to  form  of  letter. 

11.  Memorize  choice  selections  from  prose  and  poetry. 

Have  these  selections  and  those  learned  in  the  Pri- 
mary^ Form  recited  often,  and  have  pupils  write 
them  from  memory. 

71.  Second  Year. 

1.  Oral  work  in  connection  with  reading,  history,  geog- 

raphy, nature  study,  and  other  lessons.  Work  with 
stories,  poems,  and  pictures  should  be  continued. 

2.  Written  composition  work  based  on  the  oral  work. 

Pupils  should  first  learn  to  talk  freely.  Grace  of 
expression  will  follow. 

3.  Continue  work  with  punctuation  marks.     Teach  the 

use  of  the  interrogation  and  exclamation  points. 

4.  Give  frequent  dictation  exercises  in  which  special  at- 

tention is  paid  to  form,  spelling,  and  punctuation. 

5.  Continue  work  with  rules  for  the  formation  of  plurals 

of  nouns. 

6.  Letter  writing  continued.     Familiar  letters.     Folding 

paper  for  insertion  into  envelopes.  Addressing  en- 
velopes, 


LANOtJAGS.  .  101 

7.  Review  work  with  irregular  verbs  and  their  parts. 

Have  frequent  oral  and  written  exercises  calling  for 
the  use  of  these  verbs. 

Give  special  attention  to  the  verbs  that  give  the 
most  trouble;  as,  "lie"  and  "lay;"  "sit"  and  "set;" 
"be,"  "do,"  "see,"  "go,"  "fly,"  "get;"  and  tlie 
auxiliaries  "shall"  and  "will,"  "may"  and  "can." 
Make  many  sentences  to  illustrate  and  confirm  the 
various  uses  of  these  verbs. 

8.  Continue  work  with  homonyms  and  synonyms.    Fre- 

quent exercises  to  teach  the  correct  use  of  these 
words. 

9.  Extend  list  of  abbreviations. 

10.  Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  common  errors 

heard  in  and  out  of  school. 

11.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  forming  of  care- 

less habits  in  the  pronunciation  of  words  like 
"such,"  "just,"  "catch,"  etc. 

12.  Continue  to  have  pupils  memorize  choice  selections 

from  literature.  Longer  and  more  difficult  selec- 
tions may  now  be  chosen.  Careful  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  expression  of  thought. 

72.    Third  Year. 

1.  The  Committee  of  Twelve  on  Rural  Schools  recom- 
mends that  a  text-book  of  language  lessons  be  used 
in  order  that  a  course  of  teaching  may  be  carried 
out  effectually  through  the  upper  forms.  During 
this  year  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  laws 
involved  in  the  construction  of  the  English  sen- 
tence. Technical  grammar  in  conjunction  with  a 
study  of  literary  style  should  constitute  the  greater 
part  of  the  work  in  the  Upper  Form.  Special  em- 
phasis should  be  placed  upon  dictation  and  compo- 
sition exercises  with  drills  to  introduce  the  pupil  to 
the  formal  study  of  the  sentence. 


102      MANUAL  or  -THE  ELEMENTARY  COTJSSB  OF  STUDT. 

°,  The  sentence. — Teach  that  the  sentence  is  the  form 
in  which  a  thought  is  expressed.  Combine  simple 
sentences  into  complex  and  compound  sentences. 
Have  the  children  notice  the  sentences  which  they 
use.  Examine  the  sentences  in  the  readers  and  in 
library  books. 

3.  Continue  the  work  in  punctuation  in  connection  with 

the  study  of  sentences.  Note  some  of  the  more 
common  uses  of  the  comma,  colon,  and  semi-colon. 

4.  Subject  and  Predicate: — Teach  the  terms  subject  and 

predicate  in  connection  with  sentences  of  the  child- 
ren's own  composition.  Have  pupils  find  simple 
subject  and  predicate  from  their  reading  lessons, 
especially  in  prose  selections. 

5.  Develop  definitions  of  noun,  pronoun,  verb,  and  ad- 

verb, and  review  the  work  done  with  these  parts 
of  speech.  Select  lists  of  these  parts  of  speech 
from  the  pupils'  composition  work  and  from  the 
text-books  used  in  other  branches  of  study. 

6.  Have  pupils  talk  and  write  freely  from  outlines  made 

by  the  teacher.  Help  pupils  to  make  outlines  from 
which  to  talk  and  write. 

7.  In  making  the  outlines  for  and  with  the  pupils,  the 

teacher  should  develop  the  idea  of  the  paragraph. 
Each  topic  or  division  of  the  outline  needs  a  separ- 
ate paragraph,  and  the  matter  of  the  paragraph 
should  be  arranged  logically. 

The  pupils  should  be  led  to  examine  the  paragraphs  in 
their  readers  to  find  what  constitutes  a  paragraph; 
the  subject  of  the  paragraph;  the  topic  sentenca  of  a 
paragraph;  and  how  the  matter  of  the  paragraph  is 
arranged.  Make  outlines  of  numerous  selections 
from  the  readers  and  from  library  books.  Use 
these  outlines  from  which  to  write.  Compare  the 
composition  with  the  original,  and  note  the  defects. 

8.  The  following  points  should  be  emphasized  in  written 

composition   work:    proper   use  of  capital   letters, 


LANGUAGE.  1.03 

spelling,  punctuation,  paragraphing,  correct  use  of 
words,  correct  form  of  sentence,  logical  arrangement 
of  matter,  division  of  words  at  the  end  of  a  line. 
Do  not  call  for  long  compositions.  Quality  not 
quantity  should  be  the  teacher's  motto  in  all  writ- 
ten composition  work.  Better  two  paragraphs  well 
written  than  ten  paragraphs  full  of  errors. 
9.  Letter  Writing. — Continue  the  work  already  begun. 
Write  friendship  letters,  business  letters,  forms  of 
invitations,  notes  of  acceptance,  and  notes  of  regret. 

10.  Continue   the  work  with    synonyms  and  antonyms. 

Help  the  pupil  to  select  the  best  words  with  which 
to  express  his  thoughts.  Encourage  a  language 
pride. 

11.  Continue  the  work  of  memorizing   choice   selections 

from  literature. 

7 2 a.  12.  Stories  suitable  for  use  in  Middle  Form  language 
may  readily  be  found  in  the  school  readers,  the 
library  books  belonging  to  the  district,  and  such 
other  sources  as  are  available  for  the  teacher's  use. 

Upper  Form. 

COURSE   OF  STUDY, 

73.  1.  In  this  form  the  pupils  should  use  a  good  text-book 
as  the  basis  of  technical  language  work. 

2.  The  recitations  in  every  subject  in  school  should  furnish 
opportunity  for  oral  language  work.     The  teacher  should  in- 
sist upon  the  pupil's  expressing  his  thoughts  clearly  and  con- 
cisely.    Loose,  incoherent   sentences  should  not  be  tolerated. 
The  language  used  by  a  pupil  in  his  recitation  will  be  governed 
largely  by  the  attention  given  it  by  the  teacher. 

3.  The  regular  work  of  the  school  will  offer  opportunity  for 
written  work  besides  the  written  work   based  on  the  stories 
given  for  the  purpose.     Original  stories  calling  for  invention 
and  imagination  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  will  add  interest  to 
the  work.     The  pupils   should  be  taught  to  make  outlines  for 
their  own  work,  and  use  these  outlines  in  their  written  work. 


104:          MANUAL  OF   THE    ELEJklESTAKY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

4.  Teach   sentence  structure,  and   simple  form  of  sentence 
analysis. 

5.  Teach  the  parts  of  speech,  and  show  that  the  use  of  a  word 
determines  the  part  of  speech  to  which  it  belongs.     Most  gram- 
matical questions  can  be  answered  only  by  discovering  the  use 
of  the    word   in    expressing   the   thought.     Taught  with   this 
thought  in  mind,  grammar  becomes  as  much  of  a  reasoning 
(subject  as  arithmetic,  and  will  appeal  to  pupils  in  the   same 
way.     There  is  no  good  reason  why  a  boy  should  love  arith- 
metic and  hate  grammar. 

6.  Teach  the  principal  rules  of  syntax  and  give  many  exam- 
ples to  illustrate.     Give  frequent  reviews   and  drills  on   the 
troublesome  forms  of  verbs  and  pronouns.     Help  pupils  to  cor- 
rect their  own  mistakes.     Encourage  a  language  pride. 

7.  Do  not  depend  upon  the  exercises  in  the  text-book  to  fur- 
nish material  for  work  with  words  and  sentences,  but  use  the 
material  in  the  readers  and  other  books.     Teach  the  pupils  to 
use  their  knowledge  of  grammar  in  interpreting  a  piece  of  lit- 
erature. 

8.  The  teacher  must  be  on  the  alert  to  make  the  study  ol 
grammar  and  composition  a  live,  invigorating  subject.     Unless 
there  is  life  and  interest  in  the  recitation,  the  pupils  will  get 
little  or  no  good  from  the  study  of  the  subject. 

SOME     SUGGESTIVE     EXERCISES    FOR    UPPER    F<  »RM    LANGUAGE 

WORK. 

74:.  1.  Book  reviews. 

Frequently  have  pupils  give  reviews  of  b\x>ks  which 
they  have  read.  Let  these  reviews  be  giv«n  before 
the  class  or  before  the  whole  school.  The  teacher 
should  go  over  the  work  with  the  pupil  first  to  help 
him  shape  his  material.  If  the  review  is  a  long- 
one,  encourage  the  pupil  to  place  an  outline  on  the 
blackboard  from  which  to  talk. 


LANGUAGE.  105 

2.  Talks. 

Have  the  pupils  prepare  short  talks  to  give  before 
the  class,  or  the  school.  Encourage  the  pupils  to 
select  subjects  of  general  interest,  and  let  them 
make  simple  outlines  from  which  to  talk.  Current 
topics,  nature  study,  agriculture,  history  and  geog- 
raphy furnish  excellent  material  for  these  talks. 

3.  Original  work. 

Use  only  subjects  about  which  the  children  know 
something,  or  in  which  they  are  interested.  Have 
them  describe  things  and  events  of  local  interest. 
Local  history  affords  an  opportunity  for  some  excel- 
lent work  of  this  kind.  The  teacher  may  suggest  in- 
cidents of  a  story  and  have  them  develop  it,  or  she 
may  read  a  story  as  far  as  some  very  interesting 
part,  and  then  allow  the  pupils  to  write  the  con- 
clusion of  the  story  as  they  would  like  it  to  end. 

4.  Letter  writing. 

Review  parts  of  letter,  folding  superscription,  etc. 
Give  drill  exercises  on  these.  Take  up  the  differ- 
ent forms  of  correspondence,  using  the  models  furn- 
ished in  the  text-book.  Pay  especial  attention  to 
the  writing  of  a  business  letter.  Teach  that  a  bus- 
iness letter  should  be  characterized  by  clearness 
and  directness.  Teach  the  proper  paragraphing  of 
a  letter.  The  discussion  of  each  topic  should  form 
a  separate  paragraph. 

5.  Paragraphing. 

The  practice  of  preparing  outlines  for  oral  and 
written  composition  work  will  assist  greatly  in 
teaching  paragraphing.  Study  the  paragraphing 
in  the  reader,  history,  and  in  the  library  books. 
Notice  the  arrangement,  margin,  indentation,  and 
general  appearance  of  the  paragraphs  in  these 


MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

books.  Work  out  an  outline  with  the  pupils,  in- 
dicating the  paragraphs  by  topics.  Have  the  pupils 
write  from  the  outline  paragraphing  as  indicated. 

SUGGESTIVE    LIST    OF    MATERIAL    FOR    UPPER    FORM    WORK    IN 

LANGUAGE. 

75.  The  text-book  used  will  be  suggestive  in  many  ways,  so 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  the  list  here  so  long  as  in  the 
other  forms. 
Stories: 

Robin  Hood. 

William  Tell  and  the  Apple. 

Alexander  and  Bucephalus. 

Narcissus. 

Diogenes. 

Bell  of  Atri. 

King  John  and  the  Abbot. 
Pictures: 

Sir  Galahad.     Watts. 

Christ  and  the  Doctors.     Hoffman. 

Fighting  Teineraire.     Turner. 

Oxen  Going  to  Work.     Troyan. 

Horse  Fair.     Bonheur* 

Windmill.     Ruysdael. 
Poems: 

American  Flag.     Drake. 

Chambered  Nautilus.     Holmes. 

Selections  from  Sir  Launfal. 

Selections  from  Snow-Bound. 

Selections  from  Evangeliue. 

Ladder  of  St.  Augustine. 

The  Rainbow.     Wordsworth. 

The  Cloud.     Shelley. 

Note.— Whore  pupib  have  not  had  the  work  outlined  in  the 
middle  form  before  taking  up  this  form's  work,  many  of  the 
stories,  pictures,  and  poems  suggested  under  the  Middle  Form 
may  be  used  to  advantage  by  pupils  of  the  Upper  Form. 


A&ITHMETIO.  107 


ARITHMETIC. 


76.  Arithmetic  is  of  two  kinds,  pure  and  applied;  it  consists 
of  abstract  processes  and  concrete  problems.     The  aim  in  teach- 
ing the  former  is  to  train  for  the  acquisition  of  skill,  viz.:  ac- 
curacy and  rapidity  in  computation,  in  teaching  the  latter  to 
develop  mental  power. 

I. — Primary  Form. 

77.  The  purpose  of  the  work  in  the  primary  form  is  to  teach 
the  fundamental  facts  of  number  (viz.:  the  tables),  to  develop 
mental  power  in  applying  these  facts  in  practical  problems,  and 
to  acquire  skill  in  some  of  the  fundamental  processes  of  number. 

COURSE   OF    STUDY. 

78.  1.  Oral  lessons  with  objects  to  teach  the  smaller  num- 
bers and  their  relation  to  one  another. 

2.  To  count  to  one  hundred  or  beyond;  reading  and  writing 
of  numbers  begun. 

3.  The  addition  and  subtraction  tables.     The  making  and 
solution  of  concrete  problems  involving   applications  of  these 
tables. 

4.  The   multiplication,  division   and   factoring   tables.     The 
making  and  solution   of  problems    involving  applications    of 
these  tables. 

5.  Such  portions  of  tables  of  denominate  numbers  as  may  be 
used  in  the  operations  indicated  in  No.  4. 

6.  Squares,  rectangles,  and  areas  of  the  same;  cubes,  rectan- 
gular solids,  and  volumes  of  the  same;  right  and  oblique  an- 
gles; perpendicular,  oblique  and  parallel  lines,  and  triangles. 

7.  The  making  and  solution  of  problems  involving  two  or 
more  operations  of  Addition,  Subtraction,   Multiplication  and 
Division.     Do  much  purely  mental  work. 


108         MANUAX,  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COtJRSE  OF  STUDY. 
SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

7  8 a.  The  following  material  is  essential  for  teaching  number 
with  facility  in  the  primary  form:  Foot  rules  marked  to 
quarters  or  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  scissors,  paste-board  inch 
squares,  at  least  one  hundred  inch  cubes,  a  box  of  small  rub- 
ber bands,  splints,  yardsticks,  pint,  quart,  peck  and  gallon 
measures,  cards  about  2i  by  4  inches  for  table  work,  and  a 
quantity  of  sand,  bran,  corn  or  some  other  convenient  material 
for  measuring  purposes.  Each  pupil  should  have  his  own 
foot  rule  and  at  least  forty  card-board  inch  squares.  The 
above  material  should  be  regarded  as  minimum  in  amount  and 
variety. 

79.  It  is  quite  generally  admitted  now  that  no  formal  recita- 
tions in  arithmetic  should  be  conducted  the  first  year  of  the 
primary  form.     The  pupil's  experiences  in  play   and  in  his 
other  work  in  the  schoolroom,  if  a  little  ingenuity  is  exercised 
by  the  teacher,  are  sufficient  to  give  him  such  a  working  appre^ 
ciation  of  number,  as,  with  his  greater  age,  will  enable  him  to 
do  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  much  during  the  second  year  as  dur- 
ing the  first  two  years  in  formal  number  work.     If,  however, 
class  work  is  begun  the  first  year  nothing  further  than  num- 
bers 1  and  2  in  the  Course  of  Study  should  be  attempted. 

80.  It  is  better  to  have  each  pupil  in  the  class  handle  the  il- 
lustrative objects,  than  to  have  them  watch  the  teacher  do  so. 
This  can  be  more  successfully  accomplished  if  the  pupils  stand 
or  sit  about  a  table. 

81.  Determine  first  what  children  know  of  numbers.    Havo 
them  handle  objects  to  learn  numbers  and  their  relations  to 
each  other.     They  should  discover  in  conversation   with  the 
teacher,  and  by  handling  the  objects,  measuring,  etc.,  the  sim- 
ple facts  of  addition,  subtraction,  etc.:  as,  2  and  3  are  5,  that 
6  less  2  is  4,  that  two  threes  are  6,  that  one-half  of  6  is  3,  that 
6  contains  2  threes,   etc.     Many  simple   problems    involving 
number  less  than  ten  can  be  solved  with  the  objects.     The  pur- 
pose of  this  work  is  to  give  the  pupil  a  real  knowledge  of  num- 
bers and  their  fundamental  relations.      These    relations   are 


ARITHMETIC.  109 

more  truly  impressed  through  the  pupil's  drawing  and  making 
things  than  through  anything  the  teacher  may  do  or  say. 

82.  The  children  should  early  learn  to  count  to  one  hundred 
or  one  thousand.     To  simply  name  the  numbers  rapidly  in  or- 
der is  sufficient  at  this  time.     The  purpose  here  is  to  learn  the 
law  of  the  nomenclature  of  the  numbers.     Most  children  will 
learn  this  in  their  play  if  the  hint  is  given  with  suggestions  of 
competition.     Counting  by  twos  with  odd  or  even  numbers, 
counting  by  tens  and  fives  can  easily  follow,  all   furnishing 
much  sport  to  the  children  if  properly  encouraged.     The  writ- 
ing of  the  numbers  should  follow  the  counting.     As  interest- 
ing seat  work,  this  may  relieve  many  a  weary  hour  of  the  pu- 
pil's time. 

83.  The  order  of  the  work  in  any  given  subject  is  an  im- 
portant matter.     The  order  should  be  determined  by  the  logi- 
cal dependence  of  the  various  parts  of  the  subject. 

Order  of  Work  for  Addition. 

84.  Step  I.    The  addition  table. 

(a)  By  the  addition  table  is  simply  meant  the  45  combinations 

798 
of  the  digits  two  at  a  time  as,  +    5    2    7    e*°' 

(b)  In  teaching  the  table  give  short  advance  lessons,  say  a 

combination  o-r  two,  but  drill  so  thoroughly  upon  all  pre- 
viously learned  combinations  that  it  is  impossible  to  for- 
get any  of  them. 

/» 

(c)  A  combination,  as    J|    is  known  only  when  the  pupil,  upon 

seeing  it,  thinks  eleven  just  as,  if  properly  taught,  in 
reading  he  thinks  of  an  apple  when  he  sees  the  word  sym- 

f\ 

bol.      The    symbols  6  and  5   of    the   combination,  5 

should  not  enter  into  consciousness  any  more  than  the 
letters  of  the  word  apple.  The  idea  eleven  in  the  one 
instance  is  wanted  and  the  idea  apple  in  the  other. 

(d)  The  drill  for  the  mastery  of  the  table  should  be  mostly 

written,  rather  than  oral.  (For  suggestions  for  drill  see 
85  (b),  85  (b),  89  (b),  and  suggestions  for  drill  upon 
word  forms  and  phonic  elements  in  reading. ) 


110    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OP  STUDY. 

85,   Step  II.  The  addition  at  sight  of  a  number  of  two  digits 
to  a  number  of  one  digit;  as, 

23      87      49 
4,       5,       6,   etc. 

(a)  This  is  a  two  step  process  and  depends  upon  a  memory  of 
the  combinations  of  the  addition  table.    The  pupil  in 

o 

the  first  illustration  sees     and  thinks  seven tthQn  twenty- 


seven. 


In  the  secojid  illustration,  he  sees  Z  and    thinks 


twelve,  then  ninety-two.  The  purpose  is  not  to  memorize 
all  possible  combinations  in  this  step,  but  to  get  results 
by  quick  recognition  of  the  combinations  of  the  addition 
table. 

(b)  As  soon  as  a  given  combination  of  the  table  is  known  all 
the  combinations  involving  it  to  one  hundred  should  be 

taught,    as  |      2g      7|      4^      6|    etc.    This  furnishes 

an  excellent  means  of  drill  upon  the  tables.  To  assign 
an  application  of  Step  II  before  the  table  combination 
involved  is  known  simply  drives  the  pupils  to  count  their 
fingers  or  to  other  cumbersome  devices. 

86.  Step  III.    The  addition  of  a  column. 

(a)  As  this  is  but  a  series  of  applications  of  Steps  I  and  II 

skill  in  adding  a  column  depends  upon  the  quick  recog- 
nition of  the  combinations  in  Steps  I  and  II. 

(b)  The  column  can  be  introduced  while  Steps  I  and  II  are 

being  learned  if  the  sum  of  the  column  does  not  exceed 

Q 

the  sums  of  the  largest  combination  learned,  as  if  g  is 

the  largest  combination  yet  learned,  such  columns  as 
the  following 

4344 

3123 

2532 

3,   2,   2,   4 

can  be  given.  These  can  be  added  in  two  steps,  if  the 
table  combinations  involved  are  known,  as  in  the  first 


ARITHMETIC.  Ill 

column  adding  down,  one  sees  fcsven  and  five  to  be 
added,  in  the  second  four  and  seven,  in  the  third  six  and 
five,  and  in  the  last  seven  and  six.  The  pupil  in  adding 
aloud  says  seven,  twelve;  four,  eleven;  six,  eleven;  and 
seven,  thirteen,  respectively.  Do  not  point  to  the  figures 
in  the  column  while  the  pupil  adds  for  the  same  reason 
that  one  should  not  point  to  the  words  while  a  pupil 
reads.  This  step  furnishes  excellent  drill  for  training 
upon  the  addition  table. 

87.  Step  IV.     The  addition  of  two  or  more  columns. 

The  carrying  process  can  be  mastered  in  Step  II  or  in  sim- 
ple examples  like, 

29          48 
34,          87 

The  numbers  can  be  illustrated  by  bundled  splints,  by  repre- 
senting the  numbers  by  the  fingers  of  both  hands,  etc. 

For  Step  V  in  addition  see  10'J  (b). 

88.  More  or  less  in  each  day's  lesson,  while  the  process 
work  is  being  done,  problems  to  train  the  reasoning  powers 
should  be  given.     The  work  from  day  to  day  should  be  about 
equally  divided  between  the  two  kinds  of  work.     (Art.  76.) 

Order  of  Work  for  Subtraction. 

89.  Step  I.    The  subtraction  table. 

(a)  By  the  subtraction  table  is  meant  all  the  various  subtrac- 

tions in  which  the  subtrahend  and  remainder  are  digits, 
as  each  combination  of  the  addition  table  produces  two 
elements  of  the  subtraction  table,  except  that  nine  of 
them  produce  only  one  each.  There  are  eighty-one  ele- 
ments in  the  subtraction  table. 

(b)  As  the  subtraction  table  is  based  upon  the  addition  table, 

the  most  economical  time  to  learn  an  element  of  the  sub- 
traction table  is  at  the  time  the  combination  of  the  ad- 
dition table,  from  which  it  is  derived,  is  learned,  as  when 

r  o  o 

o  is  learned,  _  3  and  _^  should  be  learned.  In  this  way 

the  subtraction  table  may  servo  as  a  drill  npon  the  ad- 
dition table  and  vice  versa* 


112         MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

(c)  The  most  economical  way  to  learn  the  subtraction  table  is 
to  think,  What  can  be  added  to  the  subtrahend  to  make 

Q 

the  minuend?  as  in       »    to   think,  6  and  what  make  9? 


in      5   7  and  ?  make  15?    By  this  way  of  looking  at  it 

—     |  ^ 

the  energy  expended  in  learning  addition  is  more  easily 
utilized  and  less  time  is  needed  to  learn  the  subtraction 
table. 

90.  Step  II.     The  subtraction   of   two   numbers   in    which 
each  order  of  the  subtrahend  is  less  than  the  corresponding  or- 
der of  the  minuend;  as, 

897  574  6724 

235,          421,          1312 

(a)  To  solve  these  it  is  sufficient  if  the  pupil  recognizes  the 
various  elements  of  the  subtraction  table  in  order  from 
the  right  to  the  bft,  and  expresses  the  results  under 
the  corresponding  elements.  The  aim  here  is  to  train 
for  skill  in  computation,  not  for  reasoning  power. 
(Art.  7  <5..) 

91.  Step  III.    The  subtraction  of  any  two  numbers,  as 

546  624  8152 

219  362,          4627 

(a)  The  symbol  Jj  should  suggest _  g  of  the  subtraction  table. 

The  pupil  can  be  told  that  the  1  ten  of  the  16  is  taken 
from  the  4  tens  of  the  46.  He  can  now  see  that  in  th2 
next  order  of  the  minuend  he  has  but  3  tens,  hence  th? 

3 
next  step  is  ^    etc. 

Drill  work  in  addition  and  subtraction  for  the  acquisition  of 
skill,  should  with  more  or  less  frequency,  be  carried  out  through- 
out the  Middle  Form  and  occasionally  in  the  Upper  Form. 


ARITHMETIC.  113 


Order  of  Work  in  Multiplication. 

02.  Step  I.     The  multiplication  table. 

o 

(a)  See  notes  under  Step  I,  addition.    In  multiplication  ^  is 

a  symbol  for  15.     Do  not  let  the  pupil  say,  "5  timos  ,'i  i> 
15,"  but  "Fifteen."     There   is  no  danger  of  confusing 

3 

5  with  eight,  for  when  one  is  thinking  in  multiplication 

if  well  taught,  addition  will  not  intrude  itself. 

(b)  In    teaching  the   addition  table   do  not    use    the    form 

5X3=15.     Train  the  eye   to  recognize  the  combination 

o 

more  nearly  as  they  will  later  be  used, as  2 

03.  \"ccp  II.    To  multiply  any  number  by  a  digit. 

QOzl 

1.  When  no  product  is  greater  than  9,  as      ^ 

(a)  This  is  simply  a  series  of  applications  of  the  multipli- 
cation table.  Teach  the  pupils  to  see  in  order  the 
combinations  of  the  table. 

2.  When  one  or  more  products  are  greater  than  9,  as  ^ 

(a)  This  may  be   easily  adapted  from   the  knowledge  of 
carrying  in  addition. 
(See  Middle  Form  for  Step  III.) 

Order  of  Work  in  Division. 

04.  t'lep  I.     The  division  table. 

(a)  This  should  be  taught  in  both  forms  of  division,  as  for  in- 

stance: 

(1)  When  18^-6?  means,  "How  many  sixes  are  in  IS?" 

(2)  When  18^-6?  means,  "  What  is  one-sixth  of  IS'/" 

(b)  Many  concrete  problems  shouldbegivenillustratingthe.se 

problems,  as,  to  illustrate: 

(1)  At  six  cents  each  how  many  pencils  can  I  get  for  IS 
cents;  or  if  six  apples  are  given  to  each  boy,  18 
apples  could  be  given  to  how  many  boys? 

9— a 


114         MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

(2)  6  pencils  cost  18  cents,  how  much  is  that  apiece?  or  6 
boys  are  to  have  18  apples  divided  equally  among 
them,  how  many  apples  does  each  boy  get? 
These  simple  problems  in  division  will  furnish  excellent  food 
for  exercise  of  the   pupil's   reasoning   powers.     Let  the  pupils 
make  and  solve  similar  problems  and  determine  to  which  kind  of 
division  each  belongs.     (76.) 

(c)  The  combinations  of  the  division  table  can  be  taught  from 
the  corresponding  combinations  of  the  multiplication 
table.  These  two  tables  are  complements  of  each  other 
and  should  be  taught  together,  as  were  the  addition  and 
subtraction  tables  (89  (b).) 
(See  109  for  further  work  in  division..) 

95.  When  the  pupil  has  learned  a  given  combination  of  the 
multiplication  table,  he  should  be  trained  to  recognize  the  two 
factors  from  the  product;  as,  if  4  times  8  is  32,  32  has  for  its 
factors  4  and  8.     These  three   tables,    multiplication,   division 
and  factoring,  may  each  be  used  as  a  drill  upon  the  others. 

96.  Practice  in  adding  and  subtracting  should  be  continued 
throughout  the  work  in  the  Primary  Form. 

97.  (a)  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  use  a  ruler  to  draw  lines 
of  given  lengths.     Have  them  draw  two  lines  that  meet,  as,  <. 
An    angle  is  formed.     Have  them  draw  a  larger  angle,    as, 

(  ;  a  smaller  angle,  as,  <  .  Draw  a  line  to  meet  another 
line  so  as  to  form  two  angles,  as,  \~~.  If  the  two  thus 
formed  angles  are  equal  they  are  right  angles;  if  unequal, 
oblique  angles.  Have  pupils  practice  until  they  can  draw 
these  angles  readily,  and  recognize  them  by  their  names  when 
they  see  them.  A  right  angle  can  be  made  with  the  corner  of 
a  card,  of  a  book,  of  a  sheet  of  paper,  etc. 

(b)  Teach  the  term  perpendicular  for  either  side  of  a  right 
angle.     Draw  with  the  card  two  perpendiculars  to  the  same 
line,  as,   I  I  .    These  two  lines  are  parallel. 

(c)  Draw  a  3  inch  "square,  a  4  inch  square,  etc.;  a  2  by  4 
inch  oblong  rectangle  (oblong) ,  etc.     Divide  by  parallel  lines  at 
the  inch  divisions.     By  counting  the  rows  and  the  number  in  a 


115 

row,  let  the  pupils  discover  the  number  of  inch  squares  in  the 
respective  rectangles.  By  drawing  rectangles  and  counting 
squares  the  pupil  can  determine  for  himself  the  products  of  the 
multiplication  table  before  learning  them;  as,  a  5  by  7  rect- 
angle (5  rows  with  7  in  a  row)  has  35  squares,  hence  5x7  = 
35,  or  7  rows  with  5  in  a  row,  hence  7  X  5  =  35.  (Interpret 
the  symbol  X,  "times;"  as,  7  X  5  means  7  times  5.) 

Draw  many  rectangles  and  cut  up  into  inch  squares.  Use, 
and  get  the  children  to  use  freely  the  technical  terms  in  this 
article. 

(d)  Much  work  should  be  done  in  measuring  with  foot  rule 
and  yard  stick,  estimating  distances  and  testing  the  accuracy 
by  measuring.     A  rod  should  be  laid  off  upon  the  floor  of  the 
schoolroom,  or  the  sidewalk;  estimates  of  a  rod  should  be  made 
and  corrected,  until  pupils  have  a  fair  idea  of  its  value.    Have 
pupils  find  how  many  steps  they  take  to  the  rod.    Then  have 
them  lay  off  by  walking,  a  given  distance,  as,  4,  6,  or  10  rods. 
Measure  the  results  to  see  who  was  most  nearly  accurate. 

(e)  The  pint,  quart,  peck  and  gallon  measures  should  be 
used  in  measuring  sand,  corn,  water,  or  other  material  appro- 
priate to  the  measure  used,  until  the  pupil  has  a  fair  idea  of 
their  respective  sizes. 

(f)  Problems  involving  these  measures  should  be  made  and 
solved  by  the  pupils.     Reductions  from  one  unit  to  another, 
both  ascending  and  descending,  should  frequently  be  made.  As 
yet,  no  rules  should  be  given;  simply  be  sure  that  the  pupil 
images  all  that  he  expresses. 

TESTS   FOR  PROMOTION. 

98.  1.  Ability  to  name  at  sight  any  combination  of  the  addi- 
tion, subtraction,  multiplication,  division  and  factoring  tables 

2.  Ability  to  read,  write,  add,  subtract,  and  multiply  by  & 
digit,  simple  numbers  to  1000. 

3.  Ability  to  solve  simple  problems  involving  these  opera- 
tions. 

4.  A  knowledge  of  the  denominate  numbers  in  familiar  uee 


116          MANUAL  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

which  will  enable  the  pupil  to  make  simple  reductions  within 
the  range  of  his  knowledge  of  multiplication  and  division. 

Prepare  a  list  of  questions  and  test  the  pupil's  ability  to  advance  to 
the  next  form. 

II.— Middle  Form. 

99.  The  purpose  of  the  work  in  the  Middle  Form  is  to  ac» 
quire  skill  in  the  f  undamental  processes,  fractions  and  decimals; 
to  train  the  reasoning  powers  in  solving  concrete  problems  in 
application  of  these  processes;  to  train  in  language  in  making 
orderly  statements  of  procedure. 

COURSE   OP    STUDY. 

100.  1.  Reading  and  writing  of  numbers  extended. 

2.  The  processes  of  multiplication  and  division  completed, 

3.  The  factoring  of  numbers  to  one  hundred,  and  L.  C.  M. 
taught. 

4.  All  the  processes  of  common  fractions  taught  and  prob 
lems  based  upon  these  processes  solved. 

5.  All  the  processes  of  decimal  fractions  taught  and  prob- 
lems based  upon  these  processes  solved. 

6.  Knowledge  of  denominate  numbers  extended. 

7.  Formal  statement  of  definitions,  of  rules  for  the  processes, 
and  of  order  of  work  in  the  solution  of  problems. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

Order  of  work  in  multiplication  of  simple  numbers. 
For  steps  I  and  II  see  92   and    93. 

101.  Step  III.     The  multiplication  of  any  number  by  any 
number. 

(a)  Each  example  in  this  work  consists  of  two  or  more  ap- 
plications of  Step  II.  The  pupils  need  to  be  shown  where  to 
express  the  right  hand  figure  in  the  repeated  applications  of 
Step  II,  and  that  they  must  add  the  partial  products. 

Order  of  work  in  division  of  simple  numbers. 
For  Step  I  see   94. 


ARITHMETIC.  117 

102  (a)  Step  II.  The  division  of  any  number  by  a  digit,  viz.: 
Short  Division/' 

1.  When  each  application  of  the  division  table  is  exact;  as, 

2(842,  3993,  4;1284. 

(a)  The  pupils  simply  need  to  see  the  successive  appli 
cations  of  the  division  table.  Show  them  what  to 
do  and  drill  for  skill. 

2.  When  some  of  the   applications  of  the  division  table  are 

not  exact,  as,  8'378,  6 [4237,  4  5368. 

(a)  Before  taking  this  step,  drill  upon  such   modifica- 

tions of  the  division  table;  as,  42-^8,  17+5,  23+4, 
48-5-6,  etc.,  until  the  pupils  are  reasonably  expert, 

(b)  The  pupils  simply  need  to  be  shown  that  they  must 

apply  the  division  table,  mentally  prefix  the  re- 
mainder to  the  next  figure,  and  again  apply  the 
division  table,  repeating  the  process  to  the  end  of 
the  division. 

Step  TIL     The  division  of  any  number  by  any  number,  viz.: 
•  A>ng  division." 

(a)  In  thi-5  work  two  things  must  be  taught:  1.  A  form  for 

long  division.  2.  The  use  of  the  trial  divisor  and  trial 
dividend. 

(b)  To  teach  the  form,  use  examples  in  short  division,  or,  ex- 

amples with  larger  divisors  within  the  range  of  the  pu- 
pils extended  multiplication  table;  as,  12,  15,  25,  20,  30, 
etc.  The  aim  here  is  to  show  the  pupils  where  to  ex- 
press the  different  elements  in  the  example.  No  other 
difficulty  should  be  allowed  to  interfere  until  they  are 
reasonably  expert  in  applying  their  knowledge  of  the 
form  of  the  work. 

(c)  To  teach  the  use  of  trial  divisor  and  trial  dividend,  use  for 

divisors  21,  31,  41,  etc.,  and  be  sure  that  the  number  of 
times  the  first  figure  of  the  divisor  is  contained  in  the 
first  one  or  two  figures  of  the  dividend  41167421104 

is  the  true  quotient  figure;  as, 
In  this  example  4  is  contained  in  6  once,  ?4p 

in  26,  6  times,  in  18,  4  times.  -jg^" 

164 
18 


118         MANUAL,  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

Many  carefully  prepared  examples  should         45:8363/185 
be  given.    When  the  pupil  becomes  rea- 
sonably expert  in  this  simple  use  of  the 
trial   divisor,   give   graded  examples  in  ^«Q 

which  corrections  must  be  made;  as,  225 

"38 

102.  (b)  Step  V.     In  addition. 
For  other  work  in  addition  see  84. 

Work  in  addition  can  be  accelerated  by  acquiring  skill  in  recog- 
nition at  sight  of  the  sum  of  any  number  of  two  digits  and 

any  number  from  10  to  18;  as,  -f  T I    ?S  ?!    etc.    This 

-LO,     1^,     lo,     I/, 

is  a  double  application  of  the  addition  table.  If  step  II  of 
addition  and  this  step  have  been  mastered,  any  column  of 
figures  can  be  added  at  a  double  rate  of  speed  by  adding 

two  figures  at   a  time.      If    the   addition   table   is  8 

known,  the  sum  of  any  two  adjacent  figures  will  be  7 

recognized  at  sight,  then  one  has   but  to  combine  6 

these  sums  by  Steps  II  and  V;  as  in  the  column  at  9 

the  right;    adding  down,  15,  30,  37,  47,  61,  70;    or  3 

adding  up,  15,  26,  37,  49,  62,  70.  4 

Drill  for  quick  recognition  of  Step  V  and  apply  the  7 

skill  acquired  in  the  addition  of  columns.     Accept  no  3 

imperfect  answers.     Time  the  pupils  in  adding  sev-  8 

eral  columns  of  figures.     Record  results  of  a  test;  6 

one  week  later  give  a  similar  test  to  see  what  progress  9 
has  been  made. 

Factoring. 

I.    To  resolve  numbers  from  1  to  100  into  prime  factors. 

103.  Step  L    The  separation  of  the  products  of  the  multi- 
plication table  into  prime  factors. 

(a)  When  the  multiplication  table  was  taught  ( 95  ) ,  the  pupil 
learned  to  separate  each  product  into  the  two  factors  that 
made  it;  as,  56=7X8,  hence  any  product  of  the  table  may 
now  be  completely  factored  by  first  separating  it  into  two 
factors,  then  each  of  these  factors  into  prime  factors.  In 
this  operation  nothing  should  be  recorded  except  the  prime 
factort. 


AMTHMBTIO.  119 

Step  II.  The  separation  of  each  multiple  of  7,  5,  4,  3  and  2 
from  1  to  100,  not  included  in  Step  I,  into  prime  factors. 

(a)  Each  of  these  products  should  first,  as  in  Step  I,  be  sepa- 
rated into  two  factors  and  these  factors  memorized;  as, 
91=7X13;  68=4X17,  etc.  To  memorize  this  factoring 
table  from  1  to  100.  if  one  would  have  much  facility  with 
numbers,  is  important. 

Step  III.  The  recognition  at  sight  of  all  prime  numbers 
from  1  to  100. 

(a)  For  drill  hold  the  watch  upon  the  pupils  in  writing  the  26 
prime  numbers  1-100.  See  if  any  one  can  write  them  in 
20  seconds  or  less. 

II.  To  resolve  numbers  of  three  or  more  orders  into  pn'me 
factors. 

(a)  Teach  the  tests  of  divisibility  usually  given  in  arithmetics. 

(b)  Determine  a  factor,  composite  if  possible,  of  the  given  num- 

ber by  the  tests  of  divisibility,  and  divide  by  it.  Test  the 
quotient  in  the  same  way.  Continue  this  process  until  a 
quotient  is  obtained  that  can  be  factored  by  inspection; 
complete  the  work  by  I. 

103.  (a)  Give  such  examples  as: 

Divide  the  product  24  X  28  X  40  by  the  product  56  X  15.  After  a  little 
experience  in  the  following  form,  such  a  simple  example  can  be  worked 
mentally: 

24V28V40  Cultivate  the  habit  of  looking  for  opportunity  to  ab- 

-Q    ^7 — =32.    breviate  the  work  of  multiplication  and  division  by  can- 
cellation. 

Samples  of  examples  suitable  for  mental  work: 
72X63-^56.     48X27X11^18X88.     51X42-^-17X6.     84X72X20-*-12X63. 
Exercises  in  rapid  work  upon  carefully  selected  examples  of 
this  type  constitute  an  excellent  drill  upon  the  multiplication, 
division,  and  factoring  tables. 

Least  Common  Multiple. 
104. 

(a)  Teach  the  principle  of  multiple,  viz:  "A  multiple  of  a 
number  must  contain  each  of  the  prime  factors  of  that 
number;"  as,  a  multiple  of  12  must  contain  the  factors 
2,  2  and  3.  28  is  not  a  multiple  of  12  because  it  does  not 
contain  3. 


IL'O         MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

(b)  Find  the  L.  C.  M.  of  12,  18,  15.  Take  the  factor  2  the 
greatest  number  of  times  it  occurs  in  any  of  the  numbers, 
viz:  23.  Take  3  in  the  same  manner,  viz:  32,  and  5,  viz: 
5  once.  As  no  other  factors  appear,  4X9X5  or  ISO 
is  the  L.  C.  M.,  because  180  contains  each  prime  factor 
of  each  of  the  numbers  (a)  and  because  it  is  the  smallest 
number  that  contains  each  prime  factor. 

104a.(c)  If  factoring  is  understood  most  of  the  work  in  L.  C.  M. 
can  be  done  mentally.  la  the  following  example  suffi- 
cient written  work  is  used.  The  L.  C.  M.  of  84,  56,  42, 
63,  is  8  -9  -7=504.  Do  not  permit  pupils  to  write  out  the 
prime  factors  of  each  of  the  numbers.  Solve  many  ex- 
amples in  L.  C.  M.  In  drills  work  for  rapidity. 
(8  -9  -7  is  another  way  of  writing  8X9X7.) 

Fractions. 

105.  Oral  Work. 

(a)  In  the  first  year  of  the  middle  form,  if  not  before,  simple 

problems  involving  the  fractions  i,  1,  f,i,f  ,i,f,f,f,i,f, 
etc.,  with  digit  denominators,  tenths  and  twelfths, 
should  be  freely  given.  Pupils  should  find  the  fractional 
parts  of  paper  circles,  squares,  applts,  etc.,  make  draw- 
ings of  circles,  lines  and  squares  and  find  their  fractional 
parts. 

(b)  Various  objects  can   be  used  to  illustrate  different  frac- 

tional units;  as,  the  foot  rule  divided  into  halves,  quar- 
ters, eighths,  the  clock  face  into  twelfths,  the  yard  into 
thirds,  the  week  into  sevenths,  the  month  into  quarters, 
coins  into  their  various  divisions,  etc.  The  main  thing 
gained  in  this  work  is  the  surety  that  the  pupil  images 
the  things  he  talks  about.  Lyt  him  indicate  whether  he 
would  prefer  to  have  the  pie  cut  into  fifths  or  sixths,  the 
watermelon  into  fourths  or  eighths;  whe.ther  he  would 
prefer  to  saw  one-half  or  one-third  of  a  cord  of  wood, 
etc.  A  difficulty  in  teaching  fractions  is  to  have  the  pu- 
pils appreciate  the  unit  indicated  by  the  denominator; 
the  denominator  may  be  4  but  the  unit  is  one-fourth,  the 
denominator  7,  the  unit  one-seventh.  Another  difficulty 
is  to  get  the  pupils  to  appreciate  that  the  larger  the  de- 
nominator the  smaller  the  unit,  and  the  smaller  the  de- 
nominator the  larger  the  unit.  A  long  period  of  time 
working  upon  small  fractions  is  necessary  to  a  full  ap- 


ARITHMETIC.  121 

preciaiion  of  these  points.  This  elementary  work  should 
be  carefully  done  before  taking  up  the  written  work  of 
fractions. 

(c)  By  means  of  drawings,  paper  folding,  paper  cutting,  etc., 

determine  the  number  of  halves,  thirds,  fourths,  etc., 
there  are  in  one,  in  two,  etc.,  the  number  of  halves  in 
2>£,  3)4,  etc.;  the  number  of  thirds  in  IMj,  2^,  3%,  etc. 

(d)  In  the  same  way  various  reductions  of  the  fractions  should 

be  worked  out  and  committed  to  memory;  as,i=-|=|, 
i=f,  1=1,  etc. 

(e)  Give  many  examples  based  upon  paper  cutting,  etc.,  as 

follows:  i  +  f ;  i  +  t;  i  +  f;  etc.;  i  +  i,  t  +  f,  i+f,  etc.; 
t  +  f,  etc.;   f  +  i,  i  +  i,    1  +  1,  etc.,  *+i,i+f, 
f  H~f »  e^0'     Make  many  similar  examples  in  sub- 
traction. 

(f)  Solve   such  simple  examples;   as,    5  XI  (5  times  f,   2X|i 

etc.,  f -s-2  (readi  of  |),  $-*-2,  f  -*-  3,  etc. 

If  5X1  were  written  for  the  pupil,  "5X2  thirds"  the 
distinction  between  the  unit  and  the  number  in  the  frac- 
tion could  be  more  easily  seen.  Write  f -*-2  as  "£  of 
4  fifths." 

(g)  This  work  should  be  mental  and  no  rule  should  be  used. 

Let  the  pupil  determine  the  answer  by  experiment  with 
paper  circles  or  other  objects,  paper  folding,  etc.,  or  by 
means  of  his  imagination.  Be  sure  he  images  in  his 
mind  the  entire  process. 

Principles  of  Fractions. 

205   (1). 

(a)  The  elementary  meaning  of  a  fraction  should  be  shown,  viz : 

that  the  fraction  is  a  quantity  in  which  the  numerator  is 
the  number  and  one  over  the  denominator  is  the  unit; 
as,  f  means  3  of  the  {s,  or  3  fourths,  f  means  5  sevenths. 
Compare  with  6  gallons,  3  pints,  etc. 

(b)  A  fraction  can  be  multiplied  by  multiplying  the  numer- 

ator, or  by  dividing  the  denominator. 

(c)  A  fraction  can  be  divided  by  dividing  the  numerator,  or 

multiplying  the  denominator. 

(d)  A  fraction  can  be  reduced  by  multiplying  both  terms,  or  by 

dividing  both  terms. 

Any  quantity  can  be  multiplied  by  multiplying  the 
number  or  by  multiplying  the  unit.  2  times  3  pints=6 
pints;  or  2X3  pints— 3  quarts.  In  the  first  illustration 


122          ILAJSTUAX,  OF    THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

the  number  3  was  doubled,  in  the  second  the  unit  pint 
was  doubled.  2Xf=f  or  2X1— I-  Compare  with  the  two 
ways  of  taking  2X3  pints.  Illustrate  this  principle  fully. 
In  which  case  is  the  number  multiplied?  In  which  case 
the  unit? 

A  quantity  can  be  divided  by  dividing  the  number  or 
the  unit.  12  gallons  •*-  4  (£•  of  12  gallons=3  gallons  or 
{  of  12  gallons— 12  quarts.  Illustrate  this  principle  fully. 
|  +-4=£  or  |-i-4=]jV  Show  by  a  drawing  that  a  unit 
i  is  four  times  as  large  as  the  unit  ^ . 

In  reducing  £  to  &  show  that  the  number  3  has  been 
multiplied  by  3  and  the  unit  i  has  been  divided  by  3. 
Show  why  f =TV 


Addition  and  Subtraction  of  Fractions. 

WRITTEN  WORK. 

105  (2).  Before  taking  up  the  written  work,  be  sure  that 
the  pupils  are  reasonably  expert  in  handling  fractions  with 
digit  denominators.  (105).  They  must  learn  from  this  oral 
work:  1.  That  to  reduce  fractions  to  a  least  common  denom- 
inator, both  terms  of  each  fraction  respectively  must  be  mul- 
tiplied by  such  a  number  that  the  resulting  denominators 
are  all  alike;  2.  That  the  required  denominator  is  the  L.  C. 
M.  of  the  given  denominators.  When  these  facts  are  under- 
stood a  good  form  for  the  work  should  be  given.  The  follow- 
ing is  suggested:  No  more  written  work  should  be  allowed  for 
such  an  example  than  is  given  here. 

8  .3  .7     168 


The  L.  C.  D.,  168,  can  be  divided  by  the  var-  45! I 

ious   denominators  mentally  by  cancellation.  96| 

168=8  -3  -7,  24=3  -8,   hence  by  cancellation      

168-24=7. 


77 
138 
100 


65 


!'>•">  (3).  The  following  are  suggested  as  convenient  forms  for 
subtraction: 


AMTHMMTO.  123 

260 

The  form  (b)  differs  from  (a)   simply  in   being  (a)      1365  §  1145 

adapted  to  the  process  of  borrowing.  212  can-      o4n5  I  t>" 

not  be  subtracted  from  95,  hence  one  or  f£$  is  ^Aff 
borrowed  and  added  to  •$&  which  equals  |f$. 

In    testing  whether  %%%  can  be    reduced   to  ^                f?60 

lower  terms,  test  143  by  the  prime  factors  of  3471 

260  only;  viz..  2,  5,  and  13.  167ff 


95 

7T55 

212 


J79J*  )143 

Drill  for  rapid  work  in  solving  examples  in  addition  and  subtrac- 
tion of  fractions  by  these  forms.  Give  tests  in  competition,  hold- 
ing the  watch. 

Give  many  examples  like  the  following  for  mental  work:  A.dd  (!) 
*,*,*,*•  (2)*,i,  i,f-  (3)  £,  !,  iW?,  f,  etc.  In  or  al  work 
let  the  pupil  add  by  naming  the  successive  numerators  as,  in 
adding  a  column,  as,  in  last  example:  4,  14,  15,  22,30,  £$;  25,= 
ans.  There  is  no  objection  to  naming  the  denominators  except 
that  it  takes  time  and  is  a  slight  hindrance  in  the  comput^^on  . 

Also  like  the  following:  f-J,  f-|,  3|-lf,  8f—  3ft,  4|-2^r  ?*-• 
3&,  etc. 

Teach  short  method  for  such  groups  as:  £-{-i,  i~H»  H~l»  etc- 
tract  the  same.     For|-}-£,  f+f,  f+A-  etc.     Subtract  the 


Multiplication  of  Fractions. 

105  (4). 

(a)  Before  taking  up  this  work  the  principle  in  105  (l)(b)l  should 

be  familiar.  Books  differ  as  to  the  method  of  reading 
the  sign,  X«  The  simpler  wav  for  the  children  is  to  read 
the  sign  times  when  the  multiplier  is  an  integer,  and  of 
when  a  fraction;  as  3X|»  5X8,  read  3  times  4,  5  times 
8;  |X8,  £XI,  read  |  of  8,  |  of  |.  The  sign  should  be  so 
read  in  these  pages. 

Teach  one  rule  for  the  whole  subject  of  multiplication  of 
fractions.     The  following  is  suggested: 

(b)  To  multiply  a  fraction  by  a  whole  number,  a  whole  number 

by  a  fraction  or  a  fraction  by  a  fraction,  think  one  as 
the  denominator  of  integers,  reduce  mixed  numbers  to 
improper  fractions,  multiply  the  numerators  together  for 
a  new  numerator  and  the  denominators  for  a  new  de- 
nominator, using  cancellation  when  possible,  and  reduc« 
the  result  to  its  simplest  form. 


1^4          MANUAL,  OF    THE   EJLEME-NTAliY    COURSE    OF   STUD\. 

(c)  Apply  the  above  principle  105  (1)  (b)  in  a  few  examples 
to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  rule.  When  the  pupils  have 
become  expert  in  the  use  of  the  rule  a  short  cut  might  be 
suggested;  as,  To  mul-tiply  a  mixed  number  having  a 
large  whole  number  by  an  integer,  multiply  the  fraction 
and  the  whole  number  separately.  Many  methods  have 
a  tendency  to  prevent  the  acquisition  of  skill.  The  price 
of  skill  is  judicious  and  thorough  drill  upon  one  rule. 

Division  of  Fractions. 

105(5).  Be  fore  taking  up  this  work  the  principle  in  105  (l)c 
should  be  familiar. 

(a)  Teach    one   rule  for  the  whole   subject  of  the  division  of 

fractions.  The  following  is  suggested: 
To  divide  a  fraction  by  a  whole  number,  a  whole  number 
by  a  fraction,  or  a  fraction  by  a  fraction,  think  one  as 
the  denominator  of  all  integers,  reduce  mixed  numbers 
to  improper  fractions,  invert  the  divisor  and  proceed  as 
in  multiplication  of  factions. 

(b)  Apply  the  principle  above  referred  to!05,  (1)  (c)  to  several 

examples  to  test  the  rule. 

105(6).  In  solving  complex  fractions,  consider  the  denomi- 
nator the  divisor  and  apply  the  rule  for  division. 

In  complex  expressions  involving  only  multiplication  and 
division,  indicate  the  whole  as  one  example  in  multiplication 
and  abbreviate  by  cancellation,  as, 


105(7).  Many  concrete  problems  in  application  of  the  pro- 
cesses in  fractions  should  be  given.  The  solutions  should  be 
worked  out  independently  by  the  pupils.  The  aim  in  such  prac- 
tical problems  should  be  to  develop  mental  power  in  the  pupil 
Pupils  grow  in  power  of  thought  by  using  the  power  they  have 
already  acquired.  Any  device  or  assistance  enabling  the  pupil 
to  get  the  answer  without  thinking  out  the  problem  defeats  the 
aim. 


JLEITHMBTIO.  125 

106.  The  following  general  problems  of  fractions  should  be 
solved    and  illustrated  until  they  are  thoroughly  familiar,  as 
they  underlie  not  only  much  work  in  fractions,  but  the  whole 
subject  of  percentage.     They  will  be  called,  for   ease  of  refer- 
ence, the  Three  problems  of  Fractions: 

1.  To  find  a  fractional  part  of  a  number;  as,  To  find  5/7  of 
28;  To  find  3/4  of  12.     Solve  by  analysis. 

2.  To  find  what  part  one  number  is  of   another;  as,  To  find 
what  part  3  is  of  5;  To  find  what  part  2£  is  of  5/6.     Solve  the 
more  difficult  examples  in  this  problem  by  reference  to  a  simple 
type  example;  as  what  part  is  2  of  3? 

2.  To  find  a  number  when  a  certain  fractional  part  of  it  is 
given;  as,  If  3/4  of  a  number  is  12,  what  is  the  number? 
What  is  the  number  2/5  of  which  is  20? 

No.  3  should  be  fully  illustrated  by  drawings,  paper-cutting, 
etc.,  as,  if  f  of  a  number  is  15,  find  the  number.  The  re- 
quired number  can  be  illustrated  by  a  circle  divided  into 
fifths,  three  parts  of  which  equal  15.  Since  three  equal 
parts  or  fifths  of  the  circle  equal  15,  what  is  one  part? 
Having  found  one  part,  what  is  the  whole. 

Application  of  these  problems  will  occur  and  recur  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  difficulty,  all  through  the  middle  and  upper 
form  work,  hence  especial  attention  should  be  given  to  the  mas- 
tery of  them. 

107.  Throughout  the  entire  Middle  Form,  drill  occasionally 
in  the  processes  of  the  fundamental  rules.    Remember  that  the 
aim   in  this  drill   work  is  accuracy    and  rapidity;  that  when 
these  are  sacrificed  the  time  is  wasted. 

Decimals. 

108.  The  subject  of  decimals  can  be  based  upon  Federal 

money. 

(a)  In  the  first  year  of  the  Middle  Form  teach  the  denomina- 
tion tenths.  Teach  pupils  to  add,  subtract,  multiply  by 
an  integer,  and  divide  by  an  integer.  To  illustrate  the 
latter  cases: 

One  third  of  3.6=one  third  of  36  tenths=12  tenths 
=1.2, 


126    MANUAL  OP  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

(b)  When  the  pupil  has  become  familiar  with  the  tenths,  in- 

troduce hundredths  in  a  similar  manner,  say  in  the  sec- 
ond year  of  the  Middle  Form.  Use  both  tenths  and  hun- 
dredths in  many  concrete  problems  . 

(c)  In  all  the  examples  and  problems  be  sure  the  pupil  clearly 

images  the  ideas  represented  by  the  symbols.  Give  no 
rules  as  yet. 

Decimals.     Written  Work. 

108  (a).  In  the  last  year  of  the  Middle  Form  teach  formal 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  division  and  the  reduction 
of  decimals. 

108  (b).  In  multiplication  let  the  pupil  express  the  decimals 
as  common  fractions,  use  the  rule  for  multiplication  of  frac- 
tions, note  the  number  of  ciphers  in  the  denominator  of  the 
product,  compare  with  the  number  of  decimal  places  in  mul- 
tiplier and  multiplicand  and  deduce  rule;  as, 


108  (c).  In  division  base  the  work  upon  multiplication  and 
deduce  rule.  The  dividend  corresponds  to  the  product,  and  the 
divisor  and  quotient  to  the  factors;  hence  as  the  rule  in  multi- 
plication says  "multiply  as  in  simple  numbers,"  etc.,  the  rule 
for  division  must  be  "divide  as  in  simple  numbers,"  etc.  Let 
the  pupils  determine  their  own  rule  for  pointing  off  the  quo- 
tient. Put  it  as  a  problem  to  them:  The  dividend  is  the  prod- 
uct of  the  divisor  and  quotient.  Since  the  dividend  by  the  rule 
for  multiplication  must  contain  as  many  decimal  places  as  both 
divisor  and  quotient,  how  many  decimal  places  must  be  given 
the  quotient?  Before  beginning  the  solution,  the  pupil  should 
see  to  it  that  the  dividend  has  at  least  as  many  decimal  places 
as  the  divisor. 

After  getting  the  rule  drill  for  skill. 

Mensuration. 

For  area  of  square,  rectangle,  etc.,  see  97  (c). 

109.  Teach  the  meaning  of  the  terms  triangle,  base  of  tri- 
angle, altitude  of  triangle.  Illustrate  freely.  By  means  of  rulers 
and  right  angles,  have  pupils  draw  on  paper  and  blackboard 
triangles  and  their  altitudes. 


ARITHMETIC.  127 

Develop  a  rule  for  the  area  of  a  triangle  by  means  of  draw- 
ings, paper  cuttings,  etc.  Show  that  it  is  half  of  a  rectangle 
having  the  same  base  and  altitude, 

m  an 


b  c 

Show  by  cutting  or  folding  paper  that  the  triangle  abc  is  hall 
of  the  rectangle  mnbc,  and  that  it  has  the  same  base  and  alti- 
tude. 

Draw  many  triangles  on  the  board  and  have  the  pupils  meas- 
ure the  bases  and  altitudes  and  compute  areas.  Give  many 
problems  on  the  triangle.  Have  pupils  draw  an  altitude  of  a 
triangle  from  each  vertex,  compute  area  with  each  and  com- 
pare. This  is  a  good  test  for  accuracy. 

109  (a).  Teach  the  meaning  of  circle,  center,  radius,  and  di- 
ameter. Illustrate  freely.  Have  pupils  draw  and  cut  circles. 
Develop  a  rule  for  the  area  of  the  circle.  Take  a  slice  of  a 
turnip,  sugar  beet,  or  the  like,  half  an  inch  thick  and  as  nearly 
the  shape  of  a  cylinder  as  possible.  Cut  it  in  two  through  the 
diameter,  then  cut  it  into  triangular  shaped  pieces  from  the 
center  (sectors),  leaving  them  connected  by  the  skin.  These 
two  sets  of  sectors  can  be  fitted  together  in  the  form  of  a  rect- 
angle nearly,  and  the  area  of  the  circle  thus  determined;  or, 
the  area  can  be  determined  by  treating  the  sectors  as  triangles. 
The  rule  found  may  be  stated  thus:  Multiply  the  circumference 
by  one-half  the  radius. 

To  use  this  rule  one  must  know  how  to  find  the  circumfer- 
ence from  the  radius  or  diameter.  To  do  this  let  each  member 
of  the  class  measure  with  a  tape  line  the  circumference  of  a 
barrel  head  and  its  diameter,  the  circumference  of  a  pie  tin  and 
its  diameter,  of  a  dinner  pail  cover  and  its  diameter,  etc.,  then 
divide  each  circumference  by  its  diameter,  carrying  out  the 
division  correct  to  two  decimal  places.  These  quotients  will 
average  close  to  3.14.  Use  3}  for  the  ratio  in  all  computations. 


128          MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

The  above  rule  will  be  more  easily  remembered  by  Middle 
Form  pupils,  as  it  is  so  closely  related  to  the  triangles  from 
which  it  arose.  3}X  radius  squared  is  shorter,  but  pupils  can- 
not so  easily  recover  it  if  they  forget  it. 

A  circle  is  14  inches  in  diameter,  find  its  area.  Indicate  the 
operation  and  abbreviate  by  cancellation;  as, 


Give  many  problems  involving  circles  and  triangles.  Have 
pupils  draw  circles  upon  paper  or  blackboard,  measure  the 
diameter,  and  compute  the  area. 

110.  Every  school  should  own  a  tape  line.  Measurements 
should  be  made  of  the  schoolroom,  to  determine  the  areas  of 
floor,  walls  and  ceiling.  Problems  of  plastering  and  papering 
should  be  worked  out,  based  upon  actual  measurements  in  the 
schoolroom  or  homes  of  the  pupils.  Be  sure  to  base  solution 
of  problems  upon  actual  business  methods.  Consult  the  ma- 
son and  the  paper  dealer.  Measure  the  school  ground  in  rods 
and  find  how  many  acres  or  what  part  of  an  acre  it  contains. 
Measure  other  convenient  plots  of  ground,  If  a  convenient 
place  can  be  found,  measure  a  rectangle  10  by  16  rods  to  enable 
the  pupils  to  appreciate  the  size  of  an  acre.  Find  out  by  meas- 
urement or  inquiry  where  certain  distances  are,  that  are  com- 
mon terms  of  conversation  in  the  country;  as,  10  rods,  40  rods, 
80  rods,  a  mile,  etc.,  and  have  pupils  try  to  appreciate  the 
meaning  of  the  terms.  Locate,  if  possible,  a  piece  of  land 
called  "a  40,"  "an  80,"  "a  quarter  section,"  etc. 


(a).  Measure  the  stature  of  the  pupils  of  the  school. 
For  this  purpose  a  simple  device  in  the  shape  of  a  carpenter's 
square  can  be  made,  one  arm  to  be  held  against  the  wall,  the 
other  to  be  brought  down  upon  the  head  of  the  one  being  meas- 
ured. (One  of  the  pupils  will  probably  volunteer  to  make  the 
frame.)  Teach  the  boys  how  to  measure  the  height  of  horses. 
Drawing  surfaces  to  a  scale  can  be  introduced.  The  school 
room,  the  school  grounds,  a  field  adjacent  to  the  school  grounds, 


ARITHMETIC.  129 

can  be  measured  and  so  drawn.     This   work  on  scales  can  be 
made  to  broaden  the  knowledge  of  fractions. 

110  (b).  Layoff  on  the  sidewalk  6  rods  or  100  feet.  Have 
pupils  walk  this  distance  until  each  knows  with  a  fair  degree 
of  accuracy  how  many  steps  he  requires  at  his  most  natural 
pace  to  walk  it.  Let  them  walk  off  an  assigned  distance. 
Measure  to  see  who  is  most  nearly  accurate.  Let  them  esti- 
mate by  walking  the  distance  from  the  school  to  the  various 
homes,  to  the  cheese  factory,  blacksmith  shop,  etc. 

The  teacher's  ingenuity  will  extend  the  list  of  things  that 
can  be  done  to  awaken  the  pupils'  interests  and  make  them 
more  familiar  with  their  environment. 

110  (c).  Build  a  rectangular  solid  of  inch  cubes  (80  (a)) 
and  count  them.  Compute  the  number  of  cubes  in  one  layer 
by  noting  the  number  of  rows  and  the  number  of  cubes  in 
a  row.  Then  compute  total  number  of  cubes  by  means  of  the 
number  of  cubes  in  one  layer  and  the  number  of  layers. 
Build  several  similar  rectangular  solids  and  deduce  rule  for 
volume.  Give  many  practical  problems.  The  following  may 
illustrate: 

(1.)  30  cu.  ft.  of  air  should  be  brought  into  a  school  room 
every  minute  for  each  pupil.     If  a  school  room  is  12  by  35  by 
42  and  contains  30  pupils,  how  often  should  the  air  be  com 
pletely  changed? 

(2.)  A  space  of  at  least  600  cu.  ft.  should  be  given  to  each 
pupil  in  a  school  room.  How  many  pupils  can  safely  use  th^ 
above  room? 

(3.)  Measure  your  school  room.  Determine  whether  it  i? 
well  ventilated  or  overcrowded? 

111.  The  analysis  of  problems  was  begun  in  the  Primary 
Form,  and  should  be  continued  whenever  problems  are  used. 
(78  (1),  81,  88,  95  (f),  115  (7)).  While  no  set  form  of  words 
or  formal  analysis  is  to  be  insisted  upon,  yet  a  clear  statement 
of  the  various  steps  in  the  solution  of  a  problem  should  always 

10— a 


130    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

be  had,  with  enough  of  the  reason  for  it,  to  show  that  a  pupil 
knows  why  he  performs  a  given  operation. 

Ill  (a).  All  the  various  problems  in  Arithmetic  fall  into  a 
very  few  classes  subject  to  general  laws,  and  this  fact  will 
gradually  lead  to  the  adoption  of  a  simple  statement  of  the  es- 
sential facts;  that  is  into  a  rule  or  formula.  When  a  formula 
thus  grows  out  of  a  child's  experience,  instead  of  being  made 
for  him  and  fed  to  him,  it  will  prove  useful  enough  to  be  worth 
retaining.  Whether  one  buys  eggs  by  the  dozen,  rents  land 
by  the  acre,  loans  money  at  seven  per  cent.,  or  buys  " stock  at 
87,"  he  multiplies  "price  by  quantity  to  find  the  cost,"  or  "the 
price  of  one  by  the  number  to  find  cost." 

Work  of  this  kind,  if  not  a  daily  exercise,  should  certainly 
be  given  with  small  numbers  for  mental  work  and  to  illustrate 
the  principles  involved  on  taking  up  each  new  topic. 

TESTS   FOR   PROMOTION. 

112.  1.  Ability  to  deal  rapidly  and  accurately  with  simple 
and  compound  numbers,  common  and  decimal  fractions. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  the  factors  of  numbers  to  100,  and  ability 
to  select  and  combine  factors    so  as  to  produce  mentally  the 
L.  C.  M.  of  any  group  of  numbers  below  100. 

3.  Ability  to  solve  problems  involving  simple  combinations  of 
the  processes  named,  and  to  form  original  problems  involving 
these  processes. 

4-  Ability  to  define  arithmetical  terms  frequently  used;  to 
give  an  orderly  statement  of  the  steps  in  the  processes,  orally  or* 
in  written  language. 

5.  Ability  to  compute  the  area  of  rectangles,  triangles  and 
circles, and  the  volume  of  rectangular  solids. 

III. — Upper  Form. 

113.  The  chief  purpose  of  the  work  with  numbers  in  the 
Upper  Form  is  to  continue  the  work  begun  in  the  lower  forms, 
and  so  to  extend  it  as  to  give  the  pupil  skill  in  performing  the 
ordinary  arithmetical  computations  employed  in  business  life, 


ARITHMETIC.  131 

and  at  the  same  time  to  give  such  a  training  in  logical  thinking 
as  will  be  of  value  to  the  pupil  in  any  subsequent  mental  work. 
Much  valuable  information  will  be  incidentally  gained  concern- 
ing the  more  common  facts  of  business. 

COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

114.  1.  Complete  the  work  on  Denominate  Numbers,  includ- 
ing the  simplest  part  of  Longitude  and  Time. 

2.  Teach  such  portions  of  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids 
as  will  be  of  most  practical  use. 

3.  Give  work  in  percentage  involving: 

(a)  Reduction  of  Common  Fractions  to  per  cent. 

(b)  The  three  problems: 

1.  Finding  any  per  cent  of  a  number. 

2.  Finding  what  per  cent  one  number  is  of  an- 

other. 

3.  Finding  any  number  when  a  certain  per  cent 

of  it  is  given. 

(c)  Profit   and   Loss,    Trade    Discount,    Commission, 

Simple  Interest,  including  Partial  Payments. 
Teach  the  forms  and  uses  of  the  various  kinds 
of  commercial  paper  in  common  use. 

4.  Ratio  and  Proportion,  Extraction  of  Roots. 

5.  Give  constant  drill  throughout  this  Form  to  secure  accur- 
acy and  rapidity  in  reaching  the  results  required  in  the  differ- 
ent lines  of  work. 

SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS. 

Mensuration. 

115.  Each  school  should  be  provided  with  at  least  one  hun- 
dred inch  cubes  to  facilitate  the  development  of  rules  for  vol- 
ume of  solids.  Build  a  rectangular  solid  of  inch  cubes  and  de- 
termine again  the  rule.  (110  (c)  ). 

1.  Find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  rectangular  tank  H  by 
3*  by  11  feet. 


132    MANUAL.  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

Indicate  the  entire  operation  and  abbreviate  by  cancellation, 
as, 


Define  cylinder,  base  and  altitude  of  cylinder.     Illustrate. 

2.  To  find  the  volume  of  a  cylinder.    Find  the  area  of  the  cir- 
cle which  is  the  base  of  the  cylinder  in  square  inches.     109  (a). 
How    many    cubic    inches    would    there   be  if    the   cylinder 
were  one  inch  high?    If  2  inches  high?    Any  given  number  of 
inches  high?    State  the  rule.     Compare  with  rule  for  volume 
of  a  rectangular  solid. 

3.  How  many  bbls.  does  a  cylindrical  watering  tank  7  feet 
in  diameter  and  IT  feet  deep  hold?    Indicate  the  entire  solution. 
Make  careful  oral  statements  of  the  thought  as  each  step  is  in- 
dicated. 

Solution: 


4.  How  many  tons  of  ice  10  inches  thick  can  be  taken  from 
five  acres  of  water,  allowing  20  per  cent,  loss  in  handling?     (A 
cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62^-  Ibs.,  and  the  specific  gravity  of 
ice  is  about  93  per  cent.)     Indicate  in  one  expression  and  ab- 
breviate by  cancellation. 

5.  A  grain  bin  is  5  by  6  by  8  feet.     How  many  bushels  does 
it  hold?    A  cubic  foot  is  .8  of  a  bushel    nearly  . 

6.  My  roof  is  28  by  33  feet.  How  deep  would  a  one  inch  rain 
fall  fill  my  cylindrical  cistern  7  feet  in  diameter? 

7.  If  my  cistern  has  a  diameter  of  9  feet  and  a  depth  of  8  feet 
and  my  roof  is  27  by  33,  how  many  inches  of  rain  must  fall  to 
fill  the  cistern? 

8.  A  field  of  five  acres  of  corn  was  planted  in  rows  3  ft.  8  in. 
apart  each  way.     If  each  hill  averaged  2i  stalks,  each  stalk  li 
ears,  and  it  requires  125  ears  to  make  a  bushel,  what  was  the 
yield  of  the  five  acres? 


ARITHMETIC.  133 

9.  Let  the  pupil  determine  the  increase  of  yield  on  25  acres 
by  increasing  the  average  number  of  ears  on  a  stalk  to  If. 

Let  pupils  make  up  problems  similar  to  this  one,  determining 
the  data  for  it  by  actual  observation. 

115(1).  Whenever  the  solution  of  an  example  involves  only 
multiplication  and  division  the  probability  is  that  the  solution 
can  be  abbreviated  by  indicating  the  work  and  using  cancella- 
tion. A  knowledge  of  factoring  is  valuable  for  rapid  work  here. 

(a)  Have  pupils  solve  problems   in  finding  cost  of  lumber. 
Bring  a  board  into  the  school  room  if  convenient,  or  consider 
a  board  in  the  floor  or  elsewhere  and  develop  the  rule.   A  good 
statement  for   the  rule   is:     Multiply  together  the  number  of 
pieces,  the  length  in  feet,  the  width  and  thickness  in  inches, 
divide  by  12,  multiply  by  the  price  perM.,  and  point  off  three 
places. 

(b)  Find  the  price  of  20  pieces  of    lumber  3x6x16  ®  $20.00 
(read:  20  pieces  of  lumber  3  by  6  by  16 at  $20.00.)    Ans.  $9.60. 
In  this  example  there  is  no   need   of  any  written  work.     It  is 
evident  that  the  product  of  20,  3,  6,  16,   and  20  must  be  ob- 
tained and  the  result  divided  by  12x1000.     The   factors   of  12 
cancel  6  and  the  factor  2  of  20.     Then  10,  3,  16  and  20  can  be 
multiplied  mentally  and  three  places  pointed  off;   or  3,  16,  and 
2  can  be  multiplied,  and  one  place  pointed  off. 

(c)  Give  many  examples  and  drill  for  mental  work  as  far  as 
practicable.    Have  bills  of  lumber  made  out  in  regular  form  by 
pupils. 

115(2)  (a)  In  carpeting  find  the  number  of  breadths  re- 
quired for  a  room  and  the  number  of  yards  in  each  breadth. 
Remember  a  dealer  never  cuts  a  carpet  lengthwise. 

(b)  If  the  carpet  has  a  pattern  that  must  be  matched,  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  the  matching.  Carpets  are  three-fourths 
of  a  yard,  or  a  yard  wide. 

(c)  If  a  border  is  to  be  considered,  make  a  diagram  of  the 
room,  and,  with  a  strip  of  paper  to  represent  the  carpet,  show 
how  it  must  be  cut  to  fit  the  room.     Border  carpet  is  usually 

of  a  yard  wide. 


134         MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDT. 

1 15(3).  In  teaching  the  solution  of  cord  wood  problems,  teach 
the  children  that  a  cord  of  wood  is  a  rectangular  pile  4  by  4  by 
8  feet,  and  not  that  it  consists  of  128  cubic  feet.  By  indicating 
the  complete  problem  and  abbreviating  by  cancellation,  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  suggestion  may  be  seen.  Many  times  the  prob- 
lem can  thus  be  worked  mentally  as  in  the  following  example: 

What  is  the  cost  of  a  pile  of  wood  36  by  6  by  4  feet  at  $4.00 
per  cord?  In  the  solution  of  the  problem  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  product  of  36,  6,  4  and  4  must  be  divided  by  4x4x8. 

Whe  width  of  a  pile  of  cordwood  is  nearly  always  a  multiple 
of  4,  the  height  is  usually  a  multiple  of  4  and  the  length  is  fre- 
quently a  multiple  of  8;  hence  it  is  a  gross  waste  of  time  to 
divide  the  product  of  the  dimensions  by  128  and  multiply  the 
result  by  the  price. 

Give  pupils  drill  in  solving  similar  examples  mentally,  sim- 
ply stating  the  answer. 

115(4).  The  following  has  been  termed  the  "Golden  Rule 
Df  Arithmetic:"  In  processes  involving  both  multiplication 
and  division,  always  divide  first  if  the  division  is  exact.  It 
might  be  summed  up  in  these  words:  Use  cancellation  if  pos- 
sible in  the  solution  of  examples  involving  only  multiplication 
and  division. 

Time  is  frequently  lost  in  the  solution  of  problems  by  per- 
forming the  processes  in  order  as  soon  as  discovered;  especially 
is  this  true  if  the  processes  consist  only  of  multiplication  and 
division.  If  the  entire  solution  of  the  problem  be  indicated  as 
it  is  thought  out,  the  operation  can  usually  be  abbreviated  by 
cancellation. 

115(5).  Encourage  the  pupils  to  bring  practical  problems 
*rom  the  farm,  store  or  shop  involving  mensuration  of  solids  or 
surfaces.  These  will  have  the  great  merit  of  being  real,  hence 
practical,  and  there  is  no  guide  to  the  answer  except  the  pupil's 
work.  It  will  be  found  that  the  rules  of  the  books  for  measur- 
ing masonry  and  other  products  are  not  always  the  rules  fol- 
lowed by  workmen  in  different  localities,  and  this  will  have  its 


ARITHMETIC.  135 

useful  result  in  correcting  any  tendency  to  bookishness  in  the 
teacher  or  the  pupil. 

115(6).  Much  valuable  tim e  is  worse  than  wasted  in  teaching 
obsolete  tables  ,  units  in  denominate  numbers, and  those  of 
special  not  general  use.  Surveyor's  measure  is  too  technical, 
"pipe"  and  "tun"  belong  only  to  history,  "long  ton"  is  ex- 
plained by  the  dictionary,  Apothecaries'  weight  is  beyond  de- 
fense, "Averaging  Accounts"  is  out  of  date,  and  exchange  is 
no  longer  in  ordinary  experience  an  application  of  percentage. 
Teach  common  measurements  and  computation  effectively,  and 
all  the  rest  will  be  easily  learned  when  needed. 

115  (7).  Continuous  examples  representing  a  year's  work 
in  some  particular  on  the  farm,  will  have  especial  value  in  dis- 
tinctively rural  districts  in  awakening  interest  in  farm  life,  and 
opening  the  pupil's  eyes  to  the  problems  of  the  farm.  The  fol- 
lowing may  illustrate.  As  prices  and  methods  are  not  every- 
where the  same,  it  will  probably  need  modification  to  meet  any 
given  locality. 

1.  Mr.  A.  bought  a  farm  80  by  160  rods.     Find  the  number 
of  acres. 

2.  He  paid  $67.00  per  acre.     Find  the  cost. 

3.  He  built  two  lines  of  wire  fence  across  the  farm  parallel 
to  the  end  fence.    The  posts  were  set  1  rod  apart  and  cost 
18  cents  each.     The  wire  runs  |  of  a  pound  to  the   rod  and  it 
cost  $3.25  per  hundred  pounds.     The  fence  is  5  wires  high. 
The  labor  for  building  cost  $25.00.     Find  the  total  cost. 

4.  Find  the  yearly  interest  expense  at  5c  on  each  dollar  of 
the  value  of  the  farm  including  the  cost  of  the  fence. 

5.  He  planted  one  field  80  by  80  rods  to  corn.     It  ccst  $1.12fc 
an  acre  to  plow  it. 

6.  It  cost  25  cents  an  acre  to  pulverize  and  harrow  it. 

7.  It  cost  35  cents  an  acre  to  plant  it.     The  seed  corn  cost 
$1.00  per  bushel  and  one  bushel  planted  4  acres.     Find  the 
cost  of  seed  and  planting. 


136    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

8.  The  corn  was  cultivated  four  times  at  a  cost  each  time  of 
30  cents  per  acre. 

9.  The  corn  was  cut  at  $1.10  per  acre.     The  binding  twine 
cost  12  cents  per  pound  and  averaged  3|  pounds  to  the  acre. 

10.  The  setting  up  of  the  corn  cost  45  cents  an  acre. 

11.  The  corn  was  shredded  at  a  cost  of  3  cents  a  bushel  with 
an   additional  cost  for  labor,  coal,  etc.,  of  $25.00.     The  yield 
averaged  52  bushel  per  acre. 

'12.  The  roughage  amounted  to  3  loads  per  acre,  worth  $1.75 
per  load.  If  the  corn  was  worth  33^  cents  per  pushel,  what 
was  the  profit  per  acre?  What  was  the  profit  for  the  farm  if 
the  net  yield  for  the  rest  of  the  farm,  acre  for  acre,  is  f  as 
great? 

Make  up  several  problems  representing  a  year's  experience 
in  leading  lines  of  business  on  the  farm;  as,  a  year  in  dairy- 
ing, poultry  raising,  raising  of  wheat,  potatoes,  beets,  tobacco, 
etc.  Consult  people  of  experience  concerning  the  data  for  the 
problems. 

Percentage 

116.  To  understand  percentage  the  pupil,  1.  Must  possess  a 
knowledge  of  various  lines  of  business  involved,  as  of  commis- 
sion, loaning  money,  of  affairs  involving  profit  and  loss,  etc., 
and  be  able  to  use  the  language  of  the  business.  2.  He  must 
know  the  Three  Problems  of  Fractions  (106)  and  be  able  to 
apply  them  in  percentage.  3.  He  must  appreciate  that  the  dis- 
tinctive difference  between  fractions  and  percentage  is  not  so 
much  that  the  fraction  is  usually  expressed  in  the  decimal 
form,  as  that  the  base  in  percentage  is  understood  and  is  not 
indicated  in  the  example.  In  all  examples  in  fractions  the 
base  of  the  fraction  is  pointed  out.  The  example  says  f  of  12, 
f  of  a  sphere,  §  of  the  remainder,  etc.,  but  in  percentage 
usually  no  base  is  referred  to.  We  find  the  statements  of 
5  per  cent,  gain,  16  per  cent,  commission,  4  per  cent,  interest. 


ARITHMETIC.  '137 

etc.  It  is  just  as  important  in  percentage  to  know  what  it  is 
5 per  cent.,  16  per  cent,  or  4  per  cent,  of,  as  in  fractions.  The  pu- 
pil's success  too  often  hangs  in  the  balance  on  account  of  failure 
to  get  the  idea  by  which  this  base  is  determined.  In  each  sub- 
ject of  percentage  the  base  is  a  particular  element  of  the  sub- 
ject and  hence  does  not  need  to  be  named  in  each  example;  as, 
in  profit  and  loss,  it  is  always  the  cost;  in  commission  the  cost 
when  the  agent  buys,  and  the  amount  of  sales  when  he  sells, 
etc.  In  each  subject  of  percentage  the  teacher  must  determine 
what  the  base  is,  and  tell  the  pupils.  The  analysis  of  each  ex- 
ample is  concerned  with  it,  and  depends  upon  it.  Without 
knowing  what  the  base  is  the  work  is  largely  guesswork. 

116  (a).  Each  example  in  percentage  should  be  worked  by 
analysis  until  the  pupil  arrives  at  his  own  rule  or  generalization. 
The  problems  should  be  graded  but  not  classified  in  "cases;"  for 
the  pupils  will  then  depend  upon  the  classification  rather  than 
upon  the  conditions  of  the  problem;  Train  the  pupils  in  chang- 
ing per  cents,  to  fractions  until  they  can  tell  instantly  the  frac- 
tion which  is  equal  to  any  per  cent,  that  is  an  aliquot  part  of 
one  hundred;  as,  12*  per  cent.  =  i,  3?£  per  cent.  =  f ,  42$  per 
cent.  =  f ,  83l  per  cent.  =  f  ,36f  per  cent.  =  $;  also  the  number  of 
hundredths  or  per  cent,  in  proper  fractions  having  the  follow- 
ing numbers  for  denominators:  2,  3,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  12,  etc.,  as 
i  =  50  per  cent.,  *  =  33^  per  cent.,  £  =  20  per  cent.,  £  =  83i  per 
cent.,  |  =  40  per  cent.,  |  =  14f  per  cent.,  f  =  28f  per  cent.,  £  = 
12i  per  cent.,  f  =  62^  per  cent.,  &  =  6*  per  cent.,  etc. 

Make  out  a  table  of  per  cents,  in  common  use  that  could  be 
more  conveniently  used  in  the  fractional  form  and  commit  to 
memory  the  per  cent,  with  its  equivalent  fraction.  Which  is 
more  convenient  for  use,  20  per  cent,  or  its  equivalent  $?  25 
per  cent,  or  £?  50  per  cent,  or  fc?  66|  per  cent,  or  f? 

14?  per  cent.  =  ?  16|  per  cent.  =  ?  33£  per  cent.  =  ?  37| 
per  cent.  =  ?  62£  per  cent.  =  ?  87*  per  cent.  =  ?  83*  per 
cent.  =  ? 


138          MANUAL,   OF    THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

116  (b).  Illustrative  problems: 

1.  A  horse  that  cost  $150.00  was  sold  at  a  gain  of  10  per  cent. 
Find  the  gain. 

Sirce  10  per  cent,  means  10  per  cent,  of  the  cost,  the  gain  is 
10  per  cent,  of  $150,  or  $15.  (Prob.  I,  106.) 

2.  A  horse  sold  for  $150  at  a  gain  of  10  per  cent.  Find  gain. 
Since  10  per  cent,  means  10  per  cent  of  the  cost,  the  gain  is 

not  10  per  cent,  of  $150.  The  cost  is  100/100  or  100  per  cent,  of 
the  cost  and  the  gain  is  10  per  cent,  of  the  cost;  hence  the  sale 
price  or  $150  =  110  per  cent,  of  the  cost.  (Prob.  Ill,  106.) 
Complete  the  solution. 

(The  pupil  often  guesses  that  the  percent,  is  reckoned  upon  the  given 
number:  hence  he  usually  guesses  right  upon  the  first  example  and  wrong 
upon  this  one;  hence  the  importance  of  determining  that  the  gain  is  not 
10  percent,  of  $150.) 

3.  The  commission  in  a  given  transaction  was  $25,  the  sales 
$500.     Find  the  rate  of  commission.     Since  the  commission  is 
reckoned  upon  the  amount  of  sales,  we  are  to  find  what  part,  or 
per  cent.  25  is  of  500,  viz.:  25/500  =  5  per  cent.     (Prob.  II.) 

4.  The  gain  in  a  transaction  is  $25,  the  sales  $500.    Find  the 
gain  per  cent. 

Since  the  gain  is  reckoned  on  the  cost,  the  cost  must  be 
found,  viz.:  $475.  We  now  must  find  what  part  or  per  cent. 
$25  is  of  $475,  viz.:  25/475=1/19=5  5/19  per  cent.  (Prob.  II.) 

5.  The  gain  in  a  transaction  is  $25,  the  rate  is  4  per  cent. 
Find  the  cost. 

Since  the  rate  is  4  per  cent,  of  the  cost,  it  is  not  4  per  cent,  of 
$25.  The  gain  is  525  and  the  gain  is  4  per  cent,  of  the  cost, 
hence  $25=4  per  cent,  of  the  cost.  (Prob.  III.)  Complete  the 
solution. 

110  (c).  To  determine  whether  a  given  percentage  problem 
belongs  to  Prob.  I  or  Prob.  Ill,  the  common  ground  of  error, 
teach  the  pupil  to  ask  himself  the  question:  "Is  this  (the  given 
number)  the  base?"  If  "yes"  is  the  correct  answer,  Prob.  I 
will  be  recognized.  If  "no"  is  the  answer,  ask  further:  "What 


ARITHMETIC.  139 

per  cent,  of  the  base  is  it?"     When  by  analysis  jhis  is  clearly 
determined,  Prob.  Ill  is  clearly  before  the  pupil.  For  example: 

1.  Think  "Is  $150  the  base?"  Ans.,  "Yes,  because  it  is  the 
cost."  (123).    Then  the  problem  becomes:  To  find  10  per  cent, 
of  150  (Prob.  I,  116.) 

2.  Think  "Is  $150  the  base?"     Ans.,  "No;  because  it  is  not 
the  cost."     Then  think  further,  "What  per  cent,  of  the  base  is 
it?"    The  answer  to   this  question   must  in  "each    example  be 
carefully  determined  by  analysis.   (Prob.  2,  116.) 

Many  oral  examples  should  be  solved  to  enable  the  pupils  to 
see  quickly  the  relation  the  given  number  bears  to  the  base. 
The  complicated  examples  involving  two  or  more  simple  ones 
should  not  be  given  until  the  pupils  can  at  a  glance  determine 
which  one  of  the  Three  Problems  is  involved  in  any  simple' 
example: 

116  (d).  Prob.  II  is  always  easily  recognized. 

The  difficulty  here  is,  the  pupil  does  not  fully  appreciate  that 
the  number  in  question  must  always  be  compared  with  the 
base.  It  is  simplified  if  he  will  first  ask  "what  part  of  the  base 
is  the  given  number?"  then  reduce  the  fraction  of  his  answer 
to  hundredths,  For  example: 

3.  "Think  what  part  is  25  of  500?"    Answer  25/500.    Now  re- 
duce 25/500  to  per  cent.,  viz.:  5  per  cent.  (Prob.  3,  116.) 

.  In  the  4th  think  "what  part  is  25  of  475?"  Ans.,  25/475.  Now 
reduce  25/475  to  hundredths,  or  per  cent. 

116  (e).  In  teaching  simple  interest  teach  thoroughly  one 
simple,  practical  method  of  computing  interest.  Probably  tak- 
ing everything  into  account,  the  best  way  is:  Multiply  the  prin- 
cipal by  the  rate,  multiply  this  answer  by  the  number  of  years; 
find  the  interest  for  months  as  a  fractional  part  of  a  year;  find 
the  interest  for  days  as  a  fractional  part  of  a  month  and  add 
the  interests  for  the  several  periods. 

116  (f).  In  general  "the  three  problems"  should  be  so  fa- 
miliar through  previous  work  in  fractions,  that  when  by 


1-10          MANUAL,  OF   THE  El^EMENTARY   COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

analysis  of  the  percentage  problem,  the  pupil  recognizes  one  or 
the  other  of  them,  the  process  calls  for  no  further  thought;  it 
can.  be  performed  by  rule,  the  more  automatically  the  better. 

116  (g).   To  sum  up  the  pupil  must  know: 

1.  The  business  involved  (this  includes  a  knowledge  of  what 
the  percent,  is  reckoned  upon;  viz:  the  base)  and, 

2.  He  must  be  quick  to  recognize  and  skilful  to  perform  the 
three  problems  of   fractions  (106)  whether  expressed  decimally 
or  in  fractional  form. 

TESTS   FOR  GRADUATION. 

117(1).  1.  Ability  to  perform   with   accuracy   and  rapidity 
the  processes  involved  in  the  work  of  the  three  Forms. 

2.  Ability  to  analyze  problems  involving  applications  of  the 
fundamental  rules  of  simple  numbers,  of  fractions,  of  decimals, 
and  of  denominate  numbers;    applications   of  percentage  indi- 
cated in  the  course  of  study;   and  problems  in  measurements 
involved  in  affairs  of   life.     The  analysis   of    these    problems 
should  show  a  logical  train  of  thought  properly  expressed. 

3.  Ability  to  originate  practical  problems  in  the  classes  indi- 
cated in  No.  2  and  to  state  them  in  good  language. 

4.  Skill  in  writing  the  various    kinds  of  business  forms  in 
common  use. 

5.  Ability  to  define  the  arithmetical  terms  used  in  the  work 
of  the  three  forms  and  to  state  in  an  orderly  manner  the  rules 
or  the  various  processes. 


ARITHMETIC.  141 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  BY  YEARS. 


Primary  Form. 

FIRST   YEAR. 

118.  Numbers  1  and  2  §  78.     See  78  to  82. 

SECOND    YEAR. 

119.  Teach  the  addition  (84)  and  subtraction  tables  (89), 
the  multiplication  table  including  all  combinations  whose  pro- 
duct is  not  greater  than  20,  (92),  and  the  corresponding  parts 
of  the  division  (94)  and  factoring  tables  (95)  (103). 

Teach  the  addition  of  any  two  numbers  (87)  and  the  sub- 
traction of  two  numbers  where  each  order  of  the  subtrahend 
is  less  than  the  corresponding  order  of  the  minuend.  (90). 

Teach  angles,  right  and  oblique  angles;  perpendicular,  ob- 
lique and  parallel  lines;  squares  and  rectangles;  the  use  in 
practical  measurements  of  some  of  the  simple  units  as  inch, 
foot,  etc.,  pint,  quart,  etc.  (97). 

Continue  throughout  the  year  the  solution  of  practical  prob- 
lems. (88). 

THIRD   YEAR. 

120.  Review  addition  and  subtraction  of  simple  numbers, 
drilling  for  skill.     Complete  subtraction.     (91). 

The  multiplication,  division,  and  factoring  tables  completed. 

Teach  the  multiplication  of  any  number  by  a  digit.     (93), 

Areas  of  rectangles,  exercises  in  use  of  simple  units  in 
measuring  extended.  (97). 

Teach  to  read  and  write  numbers  to  1,000.  To  read  the 
Roman  numerals  to  100  at  least. 

Continue  throughout  the  year,  the  solution  of  concrete  prob- 
lems for  training  in  thought  power. 

(See  note  on  fractions  Fourth  Year).     (121). 


142          MANUAL,   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COUliSJS   OF   STUDY. 

Middle  Form. 

FOURTH  YEAR. 

121.  Teach  the  reading  of  numbers  to  six  orders  at  least. 
Continue  the  drill  upon  addition  and  subtraction  for  accur- 

racy  and  rapidity.     (107). 

Complete  the  subject  of  multiplication.     (101). 

Teach  prime  numbers  to  100  and  the  factoring  by  inspection 
of  the  composite  numbers  from  1  to  100;  and  the  application  of 
the  tests  of  divisibility  to  the  factoring  of  larger  numbers. 
(103). 

Teach  division  by  use  of  cancellation.     (103).  (a).) 

The  measurements  of  areas  of  rectangles  continued  and  vol- 
umes of  rectangular  solids  taught.  (110  (c).) 

Use  of  common  units  in  measuring  extended.  (110,  (110)  (a) 
and  (b).). 

Continue  the  solution  of  concrete  problems  throughout  the 
year. 

Concrete  work  in  fractions  with  denominators  from  2  to  12 
to  teach  the  smaller  fractions  and  their  relations  to  each  other. 
(105),  (105  (1).)  (This  work  on  fractions,  if  possible,  should  be 
begun  in  the  third  year  and  extended  in  the  fourth.) 

FIFTH   YEAR. 

122.  Work  on  factoring  and  division  by  cancellation  ex- 
tended.    (103,  103)  (a). 

Least  common  multiple  taught.     (104). 

Oral  work  in  fractions  extended  as  a  preparation  for  the 
written  work.  (105).. 

Addition  and  subtraction  of  fractions-written  work.  (105)  (2). 

Measurements  extended;  plastering,  papering  and  carpet- 
ing,  simple  land  areas;  volumes  of  rectangular  solids;  contents 
of  rooms,  excavations,  walls  of  masonry,  cordwood,  etc. 

The  solution  of  many  concrete  problems  in  review  subjects. 

Occasional  drills  upon  examples  in  the  fundamental  rules  to 
increase  the  skill  of  the  pupils  in  computation. 


ARITHMETIC.  143 

Oral  lessons  in  decimals  in  tenths,  and  later  In  hundretbs, 
in  concrete  work,  to  teach  the  meaning  of  decimals  in  their  var- 
ious relations. 

SIXTH   YEAR. 

123.  Continue  the  work  in  addition  (105  (2))  and  subtrac- 
tion (105  (3))  of  fractions.  Complete  the  work  in  multiplica- 
tion (105  (4))  and  division  (105  (5))  of  fractions. 

Give  many  and  varied  concrete  problems  in  application  of 
the  rules  in  fractions.  Teach  "The  Three  Problems  of  Frac- 
tions." (106.) 

Extend  the  subject  of  decimals  through  the  four  fundamental 
operations.  (108  (a  to  c).) 

Give  many  concrete  problems  in  application  of  the  same. 

Extend  the  subject  of  measurements  to  areas  of  triangles 
and  of  circles.  Teach  by  experiment  the  meaning  "pi." 
Give  many  concrete  problems  in  application  of  the  same.(109)(a) 

Drill  occasionally  upon  computations  in  review  of  subjects. 


Upper  Form. 

SEVENTH  YEAR. 

1 24-.  Review  and  drill  upon  the  work  of  decimals. 

Complete  the  work  upon  denominate  numbers,  reviewing  the 
work  already  laid  out  in  measurements  of  surfaces  and  vol- 
umes. Percentage:  Review  the  Three  Problems  of  Fractions, 
using  in  part  the  denominator  hundredths,  and  the  per  cent, 
sign,  %.  (116.)  Express  per  centsi  which  are  aliquot  part  of 
TOO  in  form  of  common  fractions,  and  all  small  fractions  in 
common  use  in  per  cent.  (116  (a))  and  have  them  memorized. 

Use  the  solutions  to  many  concrete  problems  in  percentage  to 
teach  the  language  of  the  subject  and  its  dependence  upon  the 
Three  Problems  of  Fractions.  Make  a  careful  study  of  profit 
and  loss  so  that  it  may  be  used  as  a  model  in  teaching  the 
other  subjects  of  percentage.  Teach  volume  of  a  cylinder  and 


144         MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

give    many  concrete   problems    in   application  of    the  same. 
(115  Ex.  (2)). 

EIGHTH  YEAR. 

125.  Extend  the  subject  of  Percentage  to  trade  discount, 
commission,  simple  interest,  partial  payments.  Teach  forms 
of  commercial  paper  in  common  use;  as,  bills,  notes,  checks, 
drafts,  etc.,  and  their  special  uses. 

Extend  the  subject  of  Mensuration  to  surfaces  and  volumes 
of  cylinders,  pyramids,  cones  and  spheres.  All  rules  in  this 
subject  should  be  obtained  by  analysis  or  experiment. 

Give  many  practical  problems  in  various  industries  of  the 
locality,  as  farming  (115  (7)),  lumbering  (115  (1)),  etc.  Con- 
tinued applications  of  decimals  and  denominate  numbers  by 
way  of  review. 

NINTH  YEAR. 

1  26.  A  general  review,  giving  more  attention  to  the  princi- 
ples and  reasons  involved,  than  in  the  first  course. 

Give  frequent  drills  in  quick  analysis  of  groups  of  similar 
problems;  as,  in  oral  problems  in  profit  and  loss  or  commis- 
sion, the  Three  Problems  of  Fractions,  volumes  of  the  different 
solids  previously  studied,  areas,  etc.  Gives  frequent  drills  in 
various  lines  of  computation.  Cultivate  a  pride  in  quick,  ac- 
curate work. 

If  desirable  teach  ratio,  proportion,  powers  and  roots,  one 
or  more  of  them.  Probably  a  better  use  of  the  time  would  be 
to  so  review  the  work  already  done  that  it  is  understood  and 
can  be  performed  with  facility  and  accuracy. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


GEOGRAPHY. 

127.  1.  The  general  purpose  of  the  work  in  geography  is  to 
have  pupils  learn  how  man  utilizes  or  overcomes  natural  con- 
ditions in  securing  a  living,  and  to  show  what  his  relations  are 
to  his  fellow-beings. 

2.    GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS. 

128.  Geographical  knowledge    is  acquired  in  five  different 
ways:     (1)    by   the   observation  of  geographical  objects   and 
phenomena,  (2)  by   map   study,   (3)    by  information   obtained 
from  the  teacher  in  the  form  of  direct  oral  instruction,  (4)  by 
information  obtained  from    the  text  book    and  from  reading 
matter  of  various  kinds,  (5)  by  inferences  drawn  from  facts  al- 
ready known.     Good  teaching  requires  the  proper  combination 
and  correlation  of  the  five  methods  at  each  stage  of  advance- 
ment. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  course  the  lessons  should  be  mostly 
observational.  The  facts  of  geography  relate  mainly  to  the 
material  world.  The  chief  value  of  observational  geography 
does  not  consist  in  that  it  acquaints  the  learner  with  his  home 
region,  but  in  that  it  furnishes  him  with  the  elementary  ideas 
which  he  can  use  in  constructing  a  complete  body'  of  geo- 
graphical knowledge.  For  knowledge  of  the  world  beyond  his 
home  region  the  pupil  depends  on  information  from  the  book 
and  the  teacher.  But  such  information  cannot  impress  itseli 
on  his  mind  if  the  descriptions  by  the  teacher  or  in  the  book  do 
not  cause  him  to  form  mental  pictures  of  the  scenes  described. 
Lessons  in  observational  geography  should  not  be  limited  to 
to  the  Primary  and  Middle  Forms  but  should  form  an  integral 
part  of  the  geography  of  the  Upper  Form  also. 
11— C. 


MANUAL   OF    THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

great  bulk  of  geographical  knowledge  must  be  commu- 
nicated to  the  pupils.  There  are  two  ways  in  which  this  can 
be  don,>;  (1)  through  the  text  book  and  geographical  readers, 
and  (2)  through  direct  instruction  or  talks  by  the  teacher. 

The  tu\:t  in  text  books  of  geography  has  two  uses:  It  gives 
the  poinu  around  which  the  facts  to  be  communicated  may  be 
grouped  *nd  it  gives  a  general  summary  of  the  lesson.  But 
the  text  \\  ith  the  map  should  never  be  used  as  the  sole  source 
of  information.  The  descriptive  matter  which  it  contains  is  too 
brief  and  the  facts  presented  are  too  general  and  lacking  in  in- 
teresting detail.  For  this  reason  the  teacher  must  resort  to 
tlu1  use  of  geographical  readers  and  to  oral  instruction.  The 
geographical  readers  and  books  of  travel  found  in  the  library 
should  be  u-&od  freely  and  unrestrictedly.  This  work  should 
not  be  considfc  red  as  a  task.  When  pupils  give  oral  reproduction 
of  what  they  have  read  they  should  feel  that  they  are  doing  this 
not  to  show  bow  well  they  have  informed  themselves,  but 
rather  that  they  are  contributing  some  valuable  information  to 
the  class. 

Reading  on  tlu  part  of  the  pupils  can  be  stimulated  by  a 
short  talk  by  the  teacher  which  serves  as  a  basis  for  further 
study  and  awakei»s  a  desire  for  more  knowledge  on  the  sub- 
ject. But  in  ordei  to  make  a  talk  effective,  the  teacher  must  be 
well  prepared  on  the  subject  matter,  must  adapt  the  talk  to  the 
understanding  of  the  class,  and  must  talk  in  a  way  to  appeal 
to  the  imagination  of  the  children.  These  talks  should  usually 
be  limited  to  five  or  ten  minutes. 

Narration  is  more  interesting  than  description.  For  this 
reason  geographical  information  should  be  woven  into  narra- 
tives by  means  of  imaginary  journeys.  This  method  is  strong 
in  fixing  the  associations  between  one  place  and  another,  but  it 
is  weak  in  that  it  has  little  regard  for  the  logical  connection  of 
the  facts.  The  imaginary  journey  accompanied  with  the  tracing 
of  the  map  is  the  easiest  form  in  which  the  average  teacher  can 
give  his  talk. 

The  objects    of  geography  to   be  understood  must  be  asso- 


GEOGRAPHY.  117 

1  with  their  place  on  the  earth's  surface.  Unless  this  is 
done  the  facts  will  constitute  but  a  confused  mass. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  to  read  maps  and  interpret  their 
meaning.  A  map  is  not  a  picture  which  anybody  who  looks  at  it 
may  understand.  Exercises  in  map  interpretation  are  as  nec- 
essary in  the  advanced  as  in  the  primary  classes.  In  an  oraj 
lesson  and  in  the  study-recitation  the  geographical  features 
should  always  be  pointed  out  as  they  are  mentioned.  All  facts 
presented  should  be  associated  with  some  place  or  places  on 
the  map. 

For  instructional  purposes  two  kinds  of  maps  may  be  used; 
those  that  are  before  the  pupils  ready  made,  and  those  that  are 
drawn  by  the  teacher  and  pupils  as  the  development  of  the  les- 
son proceeds.  Both  are  important  but  the  latter  serves  best  as 
a  means  of  instruction. 

There  should  be  much  drill  in  map  drawing.  Guiding  lines 
should  rarely  be  used.  In  learning  to  sketch  a  map  there  are 
three  steps  to  be  considered:  (1)  the  pupils  must  examine  the 
map  carefully,  (2)  they  must  form  a  mental  picture  of  it,  (3) 
they  must  copy  this  mental  picture  on  paper. 

In  general,  the  teaching  in  geography  should  be  managed  so 
as  to  give  pupils  abundant  opportunities  for  exercising  their 
judgment  and  reason.  Geography  should  not  be  taught  as  if 
it  treated  of  a  mass  of  unrelated  facts  to  be  merely  memorized. 
Each  fact  should  be  studied  in  its  relation  to  other  facts.  There 
should  be  practice  in  generalizing,  going  from  particular  facts 
to  principles,  and  in  deducing  particular  facts  from  general 
principles  or  laws.  This  inferential  study  should  occupy  aeon, 
siderable  part  of  the  time  of  every  lesson  in  the  more  advanced 
part  of  the  course,  and  thus  make  every  exercise  an  exercise 
in  real  thinking.  The  practice  of  having  the  teacher  or  book 
explain  all  the  inferential  matter  of  geography  is  just  as  objec- 
tionable as  would  be  the  practice  of  giving  and  explaining  the 
solution  of  the  problems  in  arithmetic.  Much  work  should  be 
done  by  the  teacher  in  stimulating  pupils  to  self-activity  and 


148          MANUAL,  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE    OF   STUDY. 

in  directing  their  efforts  by  means  of  thought  questions  and 
directions. 

The  application  of  this  form  of  instruction  will  also  be  the 
means  of  saving  much  time  in  the  teaching  of  geography,  e. 
g.  After  pupils  have  studied  the  general  circulation  of  the  air 
and  rainfall  of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  it  is  both  easy  and  inter- 
e?ting  for  pupils  to  study  the  climate  of  any  country  by  an- 
swering problem  questions  put  by  the  teacher,  and  using  the 
text  book  to  verify  the  inferences  made  and  secure  full  and 
accurate  knowledge. 

I.— II.    Primary  and  Middle  Forms. 

129.  The  purposes  of  the  work  in  these  Forms  are: 

1st.  To  have  pupils  get  vivid  and  correct  pictures  of  small 
portions  of  the  earth's  surface  by  actual  observation  so  that 
they  may  be  able  to  construct  pictures  of  regions  beyond  the 
limits  of  their  observation. 

2nd.  To  teach  pupils  the  elements  of  commercial  or  indus- 
trial geography  by  studying  the  industries  of  the  home  region 
so  that  they  may  later  understand  the  industrial  geography  of 
the  world  at  large. 

3d.  To  furnish  pupils  a  knowledge  of  child  life  among  the 
different  peoples  of  the  earth. 

4th.  To  lead  pupils  to  see  that  man's  occupations  are  largely 
dependent  on  physiographic  conditions. 

5th.  To  teach  pupils  the  most  important  land  and  wafer 
forms  and  cities  of  each  grand  division,  and  a  few  of  the  large 
facts  in  the  industrial  and  social  life  of  the  people  of  each  grand 
division. 

130.  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 
THIRD  YEAR  PRIMARY  FORM  AND  FIRST  YEAR  MIDDLE  FORM. 

I.  Observational  Geography. 

1.  Exercises  on  location. 

2.  The  land  and  water  forms  of  the  home  region, 


GEOGRAPHY.  149 

3.  Elementary  facts  in  the  physiography  of  the  home 

region. 

4.  Elements  of  industrial  geography. 

II.  Geographical  stories  told  and  read  to  pupils. 

SECOND  YEAR  MIDDLE  FORM. 

III.  Introductory  text  book  lessons  on  Home  Geography. 

IV.  Lessons  on  the  globe. 

1.  Shape  and  size  of  the  earth. 

2.  The  rotation  of  the  earth  and  the  effects  of  the  ro- 

tation. 

3.  The  great  land  and  water  forms  of  the  earth. 

4.  The  races  of  men  and  their  distribution. 

5.  Lessons  on  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man. 

V.  Lessons  on  outline  maps. 

VI.  Lessons  on  the  grand  divisions,  using  text  book  and  li- 
brary books. 

1.  North  America. 

2.  The  United  States. 

3.  Canada,  Mexico,  Central  America. 

THIRD   YEAR  MIDDLE   FORM. 

4.  South  America. 

5.  Europe. 

6.  Asia. 

7.  Africa. 

8.  Australia. 
VII.  Geographical  stories. 

VIII.  Summaries. 

l  references  for  the  teacher. 

Mill:      IntoriKitioiiMl  Geography. 

Avl;ims:     Commercial  Geography. 

Trotter:     Commercial  Geography. 

Brigham :     Geographical  Influences  in  American  History. 


150         MANUAL,  OF   THE  ELBMEiNTAJiY   COURSE  OF  BTUDY. 

Shaler:     The  United  States.     Vol.  I. 

Herbertson:     Descriptive  Geographies. 

Garnett,  Garrison,  Houston:     Commercial  Geography. 

SUGGESTIONS   TO  TEACHERS   AND    ILLUSTRATIVE   ANALYSIS    OF 
SUBJECT   MATTER. 

THIRD   YEAR   PRIMARY  FORM. 

I.     Observational  Geography. 

131.  Unit  I.     To  have  pupils  apply  their  knowledge   of  di- 
rection by  locating  the  relative  position  of  objects  in  the  school 
room. 

Exercises  like  the  following  should  be  given: 

Point  to  the  north  side  of  the  room,  the  south  side,  the  east 
side,  the  west  side.  Name  the  pupils  directly  north  of  you, 
directly  south,  east,  west.  Name  any  two  objects  in  the  room 
and  state  the  direction  the  one  is  from  the  other.  Locate  the 
NE.,  SE.,  SW.,  and  NW.  parts  of  the  room. 

NOTE. — This  unit  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the  cardinal  points. 
If  pupils  do  not  possess  this  knowledge,  the  cardinal  points  must  first 
be  taught. 

132.  Unit  II.  To  locate  the  relative  positions  of  objects  in 
the  school  room  on  a  plan  of  the  room  drawn  by  the  teacher. 

The  teacher  should  sketch  a  plan  of  the  room  on  the  black- 
board without  much  attention  to  scale  and  make  clear  the  rela- 
tion between  the  plan  and  the  room  itself.  The  top  of  the  plan 
should  represent  the  north  side  of  the  room. 

133.  Unit  III.  To  have  pupils  locate  the  positions  of  objects 
on  a  map  representing  the  school,  its  immediate  surroundings, 
and  the  homes  of  the  pupils. 

Indicate  by  means  of  a  map  and  questions  a  good  method  of  doing  the 
work  called  for  in  this  unit. 

134.  Unit  IV.  To  have  pupils  sketch  a  map  of  the  school 
room  and  of  the  school  and  its  immediate  surroundings. 

The  teacher  should  work  with  the  pupils  in  drawing  these 


GEOGRAPHY.  151 

maps.  They  should  be  drawn  on  a  definite  scale,  after  pupils 
have  made  actual  measurements.  Require  pupils  also  to  draw 
maps  on  different  scales.  Introduce  many  exercises  on  location, 
distance  and  area. 

What  is  the  purpose  of  map  sketching?  Why  should  pupils  be  re- 
quired to  sketch  maps  on  different  scales?  Why  should  pupils  make  the 
measurements  themselves? 

135.  Unit  V.  To  have  pupils  see  and  name  the  land  and 
water  forms  of  the  home  region,  and  to  learn  the  definitions  of 
these  surface  forms. 

Geographical  excursions  should  be  made  to  neighboring 
creeks,  rivers,  and  lakes  to  secure  vivid  and  correct  pictures  of 
small  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  by  actual  observation. 
The  imagination  will  then  be  able  to  use  this  material  in  con- 
structing pictures  of  more  or  less  distant  regions.  By  compar- 
ing distant  regions  with  the  home  region  all  geography  can  be 
made  home  geography. 

Lead  pupils  to  find  and  name  the  different  land  and  water 
forms  such  as  island,  lake,  bay,  strait,  slops,  divide,  etc.,  and. 
in  the  presence  of  the  things  observed,  have  them  describe  what 
they  see.  In  this  way  definitions  will  be  reached  naturally  and 
effectively.  Later  exact  text  book  definitions  should  be  substi- 
tuted. 

Name  all  of  the  different  land  and  water  forms  which  can  be  taught 
by  actual  observation  in  the  district  in  which  your  school  is  located. 

Introduce  exercises  on  location,  direction,  distance  and  area. 
Finally  the  pupils  should  get  a  bird's-eye  view  of  each  region 
visited  and  describe  it  in  class. 

Name  some  exercises  on  location,  direction,  etc.,  that  you  can  intro- 
duce. Why  should  pupils  get  a  bird's-eye  view  of  each  region  visited? 

It  is  best  to  undertake  this  work  in  the  fall  and  spring. 
School  time  should  not  be  used  unless  with  the  consent  of  the 
school  board.  One  exercise  per  week  after  school  hours  or  on 
Saturday  will  suffice. 


152          MANUAL  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

136.  Unit  VI.  To  study  the  surface  of  the  land  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  of  the  school. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  the  land  and  water  forms 
make  clear  to  pupils  what  is  meant  by  the  slopes  of  the  land, 
valleys,  plains  and  hills.  Have  pupils  abserve  that  after  a  rain 
small  streams  are  formed  wherever  two  slopes  meet  and  that 
the  steeper  the  slope  the  faster  the  water  runs. 

In  what  direction<does  the  stream  flow?  Upon  what  does  the  ^elocity 
of  the  current  depend. 

137.  Unit  VII.  To  familiarize  pupils  with  the  symbols  used 
in   representing  the  land  and    water   forms  observed   in    the 
neighborhood. 

A  map  of  the  regions  visited  should  be  sketched  on  the  black- 
board or  on  a  large  sheet  of  manila  paper.  Exercises  like  the 
following  may  be  introduced: 

Find  the  land  and  water  forms  represented  on  the  map. 
Point  to  the  map  symbols  and  state  what  each  represents. 
Trace  on  the  map  the  route  the  class  took  in  making  the  excur- 
sion and  point  out  land  and  water  forms  observed.  Describe 
the  bird's-eve  view  of  each  region  described  by  the  map.  Make 
a  list  of  the  names  of  all  the  different  land  and  water  forms 
which  are  suggested  by  the  map  and  learn  the  definitions. 

138.  Unit  VIII.  To  have  pupils  study  the  rocks,  soil  and 
plants  of  the  home  region. 

This  work  must  be  very  elementary  in  character.  They 
should  be  able  to  recognize  limestone,  sandstone  and  granite, 
if  these  rocks  are  found  in  the  neighborhood.  The  teacher 
should  tell  the  pupils  how  soil  is  formed,  and  should  name  the 
various  soils  of  the  neighborhood.  Pupils  should  collect  speci- 
mens. 

13P.  Unit  IX.  To  have  pupils  observe  changes  of  the 
weather,  temperature  and  rainfall. 

Every  school  should  have  a  thermometer,  and  temperature 
readings  should  >>e  made  each  day,  in.  the  morning,  noon  and 


GBCXJBJLPH  Y.  153 

evening.  A  record  of  the  wind,  fall  of  rain  or  snow,  and  oth^r 
conditions  of  the  weather  should  be  made  each  day  until  pupil  u 
have  learned  to  observe  general  and  specific  weather  conditions . 
Their  work  should  continue  throughout  the  year. 

140.  Unit  X.  The  teacher  should  in  an  informal  way  dis 
cuss  with  the  pupils  the  wants  of  man  and  how  they  are  sii|v 
plied.     The  following  questions  may  be  suggestive  in  planning 
work  on  this  unit: 

Name  some  of  the  wants  of  man.  Which  are  the  most  important? 
What  food  products  does  the  farmer  raise?  What  food  product* 
does  he  need  but  does  not  produce?  Where  does  he  get  those  products? 
How  does  he  pay  for  them?  Where  do  you  get  your  clothing1!  Is  any 
of  it  made  on  the  farm?  How  is  the  clothing  paid  for?  Name  the  ma- 
terials that  were  used  in  building  your  house.  Where  were  the  mater- 
ials obtained?  How  were  they  transported? 

Name  other  things  which  are  needed  by  man  besides  food,  clothing 
and  shelter.  Where  were  these  obtained? 

What  is  money?  What  does  the  farmer  really  exchange  for  the  things 
he  needs  but  does  not  produce? 

Name  all  of  the  products  of  the  farm  of  which  the  farmer  usually  has 
a  surplus.  Indicate  on  a  map  the  trade  centers,  i.  e.,  the  villages  or 
cities  where  he  sells  his  farm  products  and  buys  tools,  lumber,  farm 
machinery,  coal,  groceries,  clothing,  and  other  manufactured  articles. 

How  are  the  people  of  the  city  dependent  on  the  farmer?  Is  thn 
farmer  also  dependent  on  the  town?  Explain. 

141.  Unit  XI.     To  have  pupils  study  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries of  the  neighborhood. 

The  manufacturing  industries  of  the  region  in  which  the 
school  is  located  should  be  visited  by  the  pupils,  if  possible  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  teacher.  Pupils  should  report  in 
class  on  what  they  saw  and  learned. 

If  a  cheese  factory  is  visited,  pupils  should  report  on  the  fol- 
lowing: 

How  the  milk  is  obtained.  How  the  cheese  is  made.  Kinds  of  ehrcsc. 
How  cheese  is  prepared  for  the  market.  Where  the  cheese  is  sold  ami 
the  means  of  transportation.  How  the  cheese  reaches  the  consumer. 


154          MANUAL  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

Study  the  different  manufacturing  industries  of  the  region  in 
which  your  school  is  located,  and  plan  how  you  would  conduct 
the  exercise  on  each. 

II.     Geographical  Stories  Told  and  Read  to  Pupils. 

14:2.  To  have  pupils  learn  of  the  life  of  the  people  of  differ- 
ent lands. 

Geography  is  a  study  of  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man.  We 
are  not  only  interested  in  the  natural  conditions  that  make  cer- 
tain occupations  possible,  but  we  are  also  interested  in  how 
people  live,  how  they  make  their  living,  and  what  their  social 
relations  are.  Both  features  of  geography  should  be  empha- 
sized early  in  the  course.  Geographical  stories  should  be  used 
throughout  the  entire  course.  In  the  Primary  Form  and  in 
the  first  year  of  the  Middle  Form  the  stories  should  be  told  by 
the  teacher.  After  that  they  should  be  read  by  the  pupils 
themselves.  The  teacher  should  use  maps  freely  in  connection 
with  the  stories. 

The  following  lists  will  be  found  suggestive: 

1.  Children  of  Cold  Countries:     The  Seven   Little    Sisters,  36-38: 

The  children  of  the  cold,  9-153 ;  The  Little  People  of  Asia, 
280-295;  Snow  Baby;  Little  Folks  of  Other  Lands,  26-32; 
Land  of  the  Long  Night,  75-87. 

2.  The  Children  of  Hot    Countries:     Seven  Little   Sisters,  94-107; 

Seven  Little  Sisters,  31-34;  Little  Folks  of  Other  Lands, 
66-69. 

3.  The  Children    of    the    Desert:      Seven    Little    Sisters,    48-66; 

Little  Folks  of  Other  Lands,  7-16;  Little  People  of  Asia, 
303-222. 

4.  The    Chinese    and    Japanese    Children:     Seven   Little    Sisters, 

80-93;  Little  People  of  Asia,  203-222.  360-405;  Carpenter's 
Asia,  49-58;  Japanese  Girls  and  Women,  2  33. 

5.  Indian    Children:     Stories   of    Indian  Children,  7-34;    King's 

Geographical  Reader,  Book  IV,  202-208. 

6.  German    Children:     Seven   Little    Sisters,   108-136;     Boys    of 

Other  Countries. 

7.  Swixs  Children:     Seven  Little  Sisters,  67-79. 

8.  Dutch    Children:     Around  the  World,   Bk.    1;    Little  Folks  of 

Other  Lands,  74-81;  The  Wide  World,  57  65. 


GEOGRAPHY.  155 

9.  French  Children:     The  Wide  World,  65-73. 
10.  Mexican  Boy:     The  Wide  World,  108-114. 

FIRST  YEAR — MIDDLE   FORM. 

Observational  Geography. 

143.  Unit  I.  Observation  of  the  weather,  temperature,  winds 
and  rainfall. 

The  observational  work  on  the  weather  as  outlined  in  unit  9, 
p  152,  should  continue  throughout  the  first  year  of  the  middle 
form. 

Teach  in  an  elementary  way  the  evaporation  of  water,  the 
difference  between  fogs  and  clouds,  the  kinds  of  clouds,  dew 
and  hoar  frost,  how  rain  and  snow  are  caused,  and  some  of 
the  effects  of  heat  on  air. 

References  for  the  teacher:  Harrington,  About  the  Weather, 
33-98.  Geographical  Nature  Studies,  11-20. 

How  can  you  prove  to  children  that  air  is  something?  How  will  you 
show  that  air  contains  water  vapor?  that  hot  air  rises?  that  cold  air 
flows?  Explain  to  your  pupils  how  your  school  house  is  or  may  be 
ventilated? 

144.  Unit  II.  Teach  pupils  that  water  which  falls  as  rain  or 
snow  does  not  all  collect  in  streams,  but  some  of  it  may  sink 
into  the  ground  only  to  appear  later  on  the  side  of  a  hill  as  a 
spring. 

Formulate  questions  like  the  following,  to  be  given  to  pupils 
to  stimulate  thought: 

Where  does  the  water  in  the  spring  come  from?  What  makes  it  bub- 
ble up?  Will  the  spring  dry  up  after  awhile?  Where  does  the  water 
all  go?  Won't  the  ocean  fill  up? 

145.  Unit  III.  To  have  pupils  study  the  work  of  the  water 
on  the  land. 

A  temporary  stream  after  a  rain,  or  a  permanent  creek  will 
offer  many  lessons  for  observational  geography.  Questions 
like  the  following  may  be  considered: 

In  what  direction  does  the  creek  flow?  Is  the  current  swift 
or  slow?  Why  does  the  creek  not  flow  in  a  straight  line? 


156    MANUAL.  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

Point  out  a  bend  in  the  creek.  Where  does  the  current  strike 
the  bank?  What  effect  has  this  on  the  bank?  In  what  part  ol 
the  bend  is  the  water  the  deepest?  Is  the  water  of  the  creek 
clear  or  muddy?  If  muddy,  where  does  the  mud  come  from? 
Make  a  deep  pool  in  the  creek,  and  when  the  water  has  become 
clear,  disturb  the  bottom  of  the  creek  some  distance  above  the 
pool.  Observe  carefully  the  place  where  the  muddy  water 
flows  into  the  pool.  What  happens  to  the  mud  that  reaches  the 
pool?  What  causes  the  mud  to  settle?  Is  any  part  of  the  pool 
clear?  By  exercising  a  little  ingenuity  the  teacher  can  illus- 
trate the  formation  of  deltas,  estuaries,  rapids,  flood-plain  and 
other  fundamental  conceptions  in  geography. 

Is  the  valley  formed  by  the  creek  deep  or  shallow?  Point  out 
smaller  basins  that  are  parts  of  the  larger  creek  basin.  Locate 
the  divides  that  separate  the  different  basins.  If  the  region  is 
hilly  the  divides  may  be  ridges.  Make  clear,  however,  that 
usually  the  divides  are  lines  only  slightly  elevated  above  the 
surrounding  surface.  Lead  pupils  to  realize  that  the  creek 
basin  observed  is  but  a  part  of  a  larger  creek  or  river  basin; 
that  the  creek  gradually  deepens  its  valley;  that  the  small  tribu- 
taries deepen  their  valleys,  and  that  thus  the  entire  creek  basin 
is  lowered  in  course  of  time.  Note  where  the  creek  flows  be- 
tween two  rocks.  Is  the  current  increased  in  velocity?  Is  the 
depth  of  the  creek  increased?  Upon  what  does  the  carrying 
power  of  the  creek  depend?  During  what  part  of  the  year  is 
the  creek  basin  lowered  most? 

Lead  pupils  to  realize  that  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  creeks  and 
rivers  change  the  appearance  of  the  land;  that  the  great  ocean 
is  the  final  destination  of  all  sediment  carried  by  creeks  and 
rivers,  and  that  just  as  the  creek  basin  is  lowered  by  the  creek 
and  its  tributaries,  so  all  the  land  of  the  earth  is  gradually 
lowered  by  the  innumerable  creeks  and  rivers  of  the  earth. 

What  is  the  general  purpose  of  these  excursions?  Why  is  it  nrccssury 
for  the  teacher  to  visit  the  region  to  be  studied  before  taking  the  excur- 
sions with  the  class?  Outline  the  work  you  propose  to  do  in  school  aftei 
you  have  made  an  excursion  with  your  class. 


GEOGRAPHY.  157 

146.  Unit  IV.  To  have  pupils  continue  the  study  of  rocks, 
soil,  and  plants  of  the  home  region. 

Encourage  pupils  to  inako  a  collection  of  the  common  rocks 
found  in  the  neighborhood.  Of  these,  limestone,  sandstone, 
and  granite  should  be  studied  carefully  to  bring  out  their  char- 
acteristic differences.  The  teacher  should  discuss  with  the 
pupils  topics  like  the  following: 

What  sandstone  is,  and  how  sandy  soil  is  formed.  Granite 
rock  and  clay  soil.  Limestone  rock  and  marly  soil.  How 
frosts,  plants,  and  animals  help  in  breaking  up  rocks  and  form- 
ing soils.  How  soil  is  enriched  by  animal  and  vegetable  mat- 
ter. Kinds  of  soil  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  different  agri- 
cultural products. 

The  teacher  should  prepare  questions  like  the  following  to 
be  submitted  to  pupils:  Are  there  shells  in  some  limestone? 
How  did  they  get  into  the  rock?  Is  there  solid  rock  under  the 
soil?  How  do  you  know?  Account  for  the  difference  between 
the  soil  found  in  valleys  and  that  on  the  top  of  a  hill.  Why  is 
some  soil  quite  black? 

Much  of  the  above  work  should  be  done  in  connection  with 
the  excursions.  Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
plants  in  which  the  farmer  is  interested.  Make  pupils  ac- 
quainted with  the  different  kinds  of  trees  on  the  farm  and  in 
the  forest.  The  wild  plants  of  the  forest  and  fields  should  be 
named  and  characteristic  features  noted.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant thing  to  be  taught  in  connection  with  the  field  lessons 
on  plants  is  the  difference  in  plant  life  of  marsh,  lowland  and 
upland  regions.  Lead  pupils  to  observe  the  natural  conditions 
of  soil,  moisture  and  heat  that  conduce  to  various  kinds  of 
plant  growth. 

References  for  the  teacher:  Practical  Agriculture,  James, 
31-36;  Principles  of  Agriculture,  Bailey,  16-28;  First  Book  in 
Geology,  Shaler,  24-29. 

Why  should  you  pay  particular  attention  to  the  plants  of  the  farm? 
N.-uue  five  kinds  of  trees  or  shrubs  that  grow  in  swamps.  Name  twelve 
or  more  kinds  of  trees  that  are  found  in  the  neighborhood  where  you 


158         MANUAL  OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

live.  Name  the  common  wild  flowers  of  the  field  and  forest.  Name 
the  wild  animals  found  in  your  district.  Explain  the  difference  between 
the  vegetation  found  in  marsh  and  upland  regions;  between  that  found 
on  the  north  or  south  side  of  a  hill  or  ridge. 

14-7.  Unit  V.  To  have  pupils  review  the  lessons  on  the 
wants  of  man  and  how  they  are  supplied,  the  products  of  the 
farm,  their  uses  and  the  destination  of  the  surplus  products, 
and  to  have  pupils  enumerate  the  food  products,  clothing  and 
building  materials  not  supplied  directly  from  the  farm,  and  to 
learn  how  they  are  obtained. 

In  the  work  on  this  unit  the  farm  is  considered  a  commer- 
cial center.  Because  it  does  not  produce  all  that  the  farmer 
needs  and  more  of  some  things  than  he  needs,  its  surplus  prod- 
ucts must  be  taken  to  some  other  center  and  there  exchanged 
for  products  which  the  farm  does  not  supply.  (See  Unit  10, 
p.  153.) 

148.  Unit  VI.  To  have  pupils  learn  of  the  natural  condi- 
tions that  make  the  productions  of  the  home  center  possible, 
and  to  learn  how  man  takes  advantage  of  natural  conditions 
and  changes  some  of  them  to  suit  his  needs. 

It  is  impossible  in  this  course  of  study  to  outline  definitely 
the  character  of  the  work  under  this  unit  in  each  district.  If 
farming  is  the  only  industry,  the  consideration  of  this  unit  is 
comparatively  simple.  If  the  community  is  also  a  manufac- 
turing center  the  conditions  that  contribute  to  the  success  of 
each  industry  should  be  considered.  If  the  school  is  in  a  min- 
ing region,  the  natural  conditions  that  constitute  a  basis  of  the 
industry  should  be  considered.  In  general  the  attempt  should 
be  made  to  show  that  the  character  of  the  occupations  depends 
in  a  great  measure  on  the  physiographic  conditions,  but  that 
man  is  of  vital  importance  in  taking  advantage  of  the  condi- 
tions, and  often  changes  them  to  suit  his  needs. 

Select  some  home  industry  and  outline  definitely  the  work  on  it  to 
illustrate  the  work  on  the  above  unit. 


GEOGRAPHY.  15'J 

149.  Unit  VII.  To  summarize  the  industries  of  the  home 
region. 

The  following  map  will  be  suggestive  of  the  kind  of  map  to 
be  prepared  by  the  teacher  to  represent  the  home  region  and 
the  nearest  trade  centers: 

Suppose  the  above  map  represents  your  home  region  and 
neighboring  trade  centers,  and  that  your  school  is  the  one 
marked  x.  Pupils  should  answer  questions  like  the  following: 

1.  What  farm  products  are  raised  in  excess  of  the  needs  of 
the  community?    Where  do  the  farmers  sell  their  products? 
Why  do  they  not  take  them  to  Smithville?     How  are  the  agri- 
cultural products  shipped  from  Hay  ton  and  Richmond?     Why 
does  the  railroad '  run  along  the  river?    Why  are  roads  and 
railroads  commercial  routes? 

2.  For  what  do  the  farmers  exchange  their  surplus  products 
at  the  trade  centers,  i.  e.,  villages  and  cities? 

3.  Trace  the  routes  the  different  farmers  take  in  going  to  the 
various  trade  centers. 

4.  Will  the  farmers  of  this  community  do  some  trading  at 
Smithville?     Why?    There  is  a  store  about  a  mile  north   of 
your  school.     What  is  the  character  of  the  trade  it  gets? 

5.  Do  the  farmers   of   your  home  region  do  most  of  their 
trading  at  Hay  ton  or  Richmond?    Why?     How  do  the  roads 
running  diagonally  across  the  country  help  the  trade  of  Rich- 
mond?    Richmond  has  a  population  of  3,000,  Hayton,  a  popu- 
lation of  600.     Richmond  has  a  bank,  Hayton  has  not.     How 
does  that  influence  the  trade  of  the  two  places? 

6.  Point  out  the  cheese  factory  about  a  mile   north  of  the 
school,  and  the  creamery  southeast  of  the  school.     Indicate  on 
the  map  the  areas  tributary  to  the  cheese  factory;  to  the  cream- 
ery.    Do  these  areas  overlap?    Why? 

7.  What  other  articles  are  manufactured  in  your  neighbor- 
hood and  where  are  they  disposed  of  ? 

8.  Indicate  the  telephone   lines   and  the  free  mail  delivery 
routes.     How  do  these  help  the  farmer? 


160          MANUAL  OF   THE  HLH1OJNTABT   OOT7BSE  OF   STUDY. 

9.  Name  again  the  things  the  farmers  near  the  school  sell, 
the  villages  and  cities  where  they  dispose  of  their  products, 
and  trace  the  routes  by  which  they  travel  in  going  to  these 
centers.  Name  again  the  things  the  farmers  need  but  do  not 
produce  and  state  where  they  buy  these  things,  and  trace  com- 
mercial routes. 

Sketch  a  map  of  the  region  in  which  your  school  is  located  and  give  a 
summary  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  region,  and  trace  the  com- 
mercial routes. 

NOTE.— The  work  with  geographical  stories  should  continue  through- 
out the  year.  See  p.  154. 

SECOND  AND  THIRD  YEAR— MIDDLE  FORM. 

General  Suggestions. 

150.  It  is  suggested  that  during  the  second  year  of  the  Middle 
Form,  teachers  should  cover  the  introductory  lessons  on  home 
geography,  the  lessons  on  the  globe,  and  outline  maps,  and  the 
lessons  on  North  and  South  America. 

In  the  last  year  of  the  Middle  Form  these  lessons  should  be 
reviewed  briefly  during  the  first  month  of  school.  The  lessons 
on  Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  Australia  should  then  follow. 
About  two  months  should  be  allowed  at  the  end  of  the  year  for 
a  general  review  of  the  work  done  in'  the  Primary  and  Middle 
Forms.  In  this  review  special  attention  should  be  devoted  to 
"place"  geography  and  map  sketching. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  do  much  supplementary  read- 
ing in  connection  with  the  text  book  work  in  geography.  Ref- 
erences to  books  in  the  library  should  be  prepared  by  the 
teacher. 

Ill— Text  Book  Lessons  on  Home  Geography. 

151.  In  every  elementary  text  book  in  geography  considera- 
ble space  is  devoted  to  the  study  of   home  geography.     Natur- 
ally the  text  book  must  treat  this   subject  in   a  very  general 
way.    It  should  be  the  purpose  of  the  teacher    to   make  clear 
all  statements  found  in  the  book  by  a  constant  reference  to  the 
observational   geography   of   the  immediate   neighborhood  in 


GEOGRAPHY.  161 

which  the  children  live.  It  is  advisable  to  comhine  the  text 
book  study  with  excursion  work  as  previously  outlined.  The 
time  devoted  to  this  phase  of  geography  will  depend  greatly  on 
the  text  book  in  use,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  pupils  should  not 
be  hurried  in  their  basic  work. 

IV. — Lessons  on  the  Globe. 
Topic  1.     Shape  and  Size  of  the  Earth. 

152.  Unit  I.  To  have  pupils  learn  the  properties  of  a  sta- 
tionary sphere,  and  to  learn  about  the  shape  and   size  of  the 
earth. 

As  preparatory  to  studying  about  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
earth,  pupils  should  be  taught  to  recognize  and  in  an  elemen- 
tary way  define  the  following:  Point,  line,  straight  line,  par- 
allel, vertical,  perpendicular  and  horizontal  lines,  circle,  cir- 
cumference, diameter,  radius,  degree,  angle,  sphere,  horizon. 

No  elaborate  apparatus  is  needed  for  teaching  the  above.  A 
ball  painted  black  may  be  used  in  teaching  the  points  and  lines 
of  the  sphere. 

With  books  open  the  teacher  should  make  clear  every  state- 
ment found  in  the  text  in  regard  to  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
earth.  This  should  be  done  before  the  teacher  assigns  the  les- 
son in  the  book,  so  that  pupils  may  be  in  a  position  to  intelli- 
gently study  the  new  lesson. 

Topic  2.     The  Rotation  of  the  Earth. 

153.  Unit  I.  To  learn  that  the  earth  rotates,  and  to  learn  the 
effects  of  the  rotation. 

Pupils  have  observed  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  moon 
and  stars.  Tell  them  of  the  immense  distances  the  sun  and 
stars  are  from  the  earth.  Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  mo- 
tion in  one  direction  may  cause  apparent  motion  in  the  oppo- 
site direction.  Lead  pupils  to  realize  that  it  is  more  probable 
that  the  sun  and  stars  appear  to  move  from  east  to  west  than 
that  they  actually  move  around  the  earth,  and  that  this  appar- 
ent motion  is  caused  by  the  real  motion  of  the  earth  from  west 

to  east. 

12--CI 


162          MANUAL   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

Teach  in  connection  with  this  unit  the  following  terms: 

Axis,  poles,  north  and  south  poles,  equator,  parallel,  hemi- 
sphere, meridian,  tropic  of  cancer,  tropic  of  Capricorn,  arctic  and 
antarctic  circles,  torrid  zone,  temperate  zones  and  frigid  zones. 

Teach  the  meaning  of  latitude  and  longitude  and  show  how 
they  help  in  locating  points  on  the  globe. 

Teach  how  the  daily  motion  from  west  to  east  causes  the 
phenomenon  of  day  and  night. 

1 54.  Unit  II.  The  climate  of  the  world. 

The  work  on  this  unit  should  be  based  largely  on  the  text 
book  in  use.  Teach  what  is  meant  by  climate,  and  locate  on 
the  globe  and  a  map  of  the  world  the  heat  belts.  Review  stories 
used  in  previous  years  calculated  to  impress  upon  the  pupils 
the  climate  of  different  parts  of  the  earth.  See  p.  154. 

Topic  3.     The  Great  Land  and  Water  Forms  of  the  Earth. 

154 a.  Unit  I.  To  have  pupils  find  and  name  the  great  land 
and  water  masses  of  the  earth. 

Exercises  like  the  following  may  be  introduced:  Find  and 
name  the  continents,  oceans  and  grand  divisions,  ".jocate  the 
grand  divisions  with  reference  to  each  other  and  with  reference 
to  the  oceans.  Name  the  grand  divisions  and  oceans  accord- 
ing to  size.  Learn  to  spell  the  names.  Point  out  the  zones, 
and  the  parts  of  each  grand  division  included  by  them.  Find 
the  land  hemisphere  and  the  water  hemisphere. 

If  possible  a  globe  should  be  used  in  conducting  the  above 
exercises. 

These  lessons  should  be  followed  by  lessons  on  the  map  of 
the  world.  Naturally  they  will  be  in  the  nature  of  review  les- 
sons. 

NOTE.— Each  school  should  have  a  large  political  wall  map 
of  the  world,  preferably  a  hemisphere  map.  This  should  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  above  lessons  and  in  connection 
with  the  library  reading  in  geography  and  history. 


GEOGRAPHY.  163 

Topic  4.    Races  of  Men. 

155.  Unit  I.  To  have  pupils  learn  about  the  races  of  men- 
and  their  distribution,  and  to  learn  the  general  facts  about  the 
earth  as  the  home  of  man. 

The  teacher  should  review  typical  stories  of  people  in  differ- 
ent lands,  and  then  teach  the  characteristics  of  the  races  of  men 
and  the  distribution  of  the  races. 

Topic  5.     Lessons  on  the  Earth  as  the  Home  of  Man. 

156.  Unit  I.  To  have  pupils  learn  the  general  facts  about 
the  earth — the  home  of  man.     (140.) 

Teach  pupils  that  about  half  of  the  people  of  the  earth  get 
their  living  by  farming.  Have  them  enumerate  the  different 
branches  of  farming.  Review  the  products  of  the  farm  which 
are  used  for  food,  clothing  or  shelter.  Tell  pupils  that  these 
farm  products  constitute  the  principal  agricultural  products  oi 
the  temperate  zones. 

Teach  pupils  the  important  agricultural  products  of  the  hot 
belts,  and  their  uses.  Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  heat  and 
moisture  determine  in  a  great  measure  the  character  of  plant 
and  animal  life  on  the  earth. 

Point  out  the  unproductive  regions  of  the  earth  and  lead  pu- 
pils to  realize  that  some  deserts  are  caused  by  lack  of  rain  and 
others  by  excessive  cold. 

Teach  pupils  that  in  different  parts  of  the  earth  mining  and 
fishing  are  important  occupations,  and  that  many  people  are 
engaged  in  converting  agricultural,  mining  and  other  products 
into  articles  for  the  use  of  man.  And  finally  teach  pupils  that 
just  as  the  farmer  exchanges  his  surplus  products  for  things 
that  he  needs  but  does  not  produce,  so  the  different  people  of 
the  world  exchange  their  surplus  products  for  things  which 
they  need  but  do  not  produce,  and  that  this  exchange  of  pro- 
ducts is  called  commerce. 


164:    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

V.     Lessons    on    the  Grand  Divisions  Using  Text    Book    and 

Library  Books. 

157.  The  following  will  suggest  the  work  on  North  America: 

1.  The  location  of  North  America  with  reference  to  latitude, 
zones  and  other  grand  divisions. 

2.  The  boundaries.    The  area.     Compare  the  area  with  thai 
of  each  of  the  other  grand  divisions. 

3.  The  surface  and  drainage. 

4.  The  climate. 

5.  The  political  divisions. 

6.  The  land  and  water  forms  and  cities: 

1.  Rivers:  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Ohio,  Hudson,  Poto- 

mac, Rio  Grande,  Colorado,  Columbia,  Yukon,  St. 
Lawrence. 

2.  Mountains:  Rocky,  Sierra  Nevada,  Alleghany. 

3.  Lakes:  Michigan,   Superior,  Huron,  Erie,   Ontario, 

Great  Salt  Lake. 

4.  Gulfs  and  bays  and  straits:  Baffin  Bay,  Davis  Strait, 

Hudson  Bay,  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
Gulf  of  California,  Bering  Strait,  Chesapeake,  and 
Delaware  Bay. 

5.  Peninsulas,  capes  and  islands:  Labrador,  Nova  Sco- 

tia, Florida,  Yucatan,  Lower  California,  Alaska, 
Cod,  Hatteras,  Sable,  Newfoundland,  Bahama, 
West  Indies,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico. 

Cities:  Washington,  New  York,  Chicago,  Philadel- 
phia, Boston.  St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Denver,  Milwaukeo,  Montreal,  Quebec,  Mex- 
ico, Vera  Cruz,  Havana. 

7.  Pupils   should  learn    to   sketch  rapidly  a  map  of  North 
America,  and  insert  the  above  land  and  water  forms. 

8.  Library  reading  work  on  North  America  should  be  begun 
when  the  geography  of  this   grand  division  is  first  taken    up. 
The  teacher  should  prepare  references  to  all  books  in  the  library 
relating  to  the  people,  animals,  and  products  of  North  America, 


165 


NOTE  —  The  teacher  should  prepare  outlines  similar  to  the 
above  on  each  grand  division.  References  to  stories  relating  to 
each  grand  division  should  be  prepared. 

VI.     Summaries. 

158.  The  last  few  months  of  the  Middle  Form  should  be  de- 
voted to  a  review  of  the  work  outlined  for  the  Primary  and 
Middle  Forms.  The  teacher  should  aim  at  essentials.  Re- 
quire pupils  to  give  clear,  clean-cut  summaries  of  the  various 
topics  indicated  under  tests  for  promotion. 

TESTS   FOR   PROMOTION. 

Before  entering  upon  the  work  of  the  Upper  Form,  pupils 
should  be  able  to  do  the  following: 

1.  Draw  a  map  of  the  home  region  and  summarize  the  im- 

portant physiographic  features. 

2.  Name  the  common  rocks  of  the  home  region,  state  how 

soil  is  formed,  name  the  different  kinds  of  soil  and  state 
how  soil  may  be  enriched. 

3.  Name  the  important  plants   and  animals  used  for  food 

purposes  which  are  produced  in  the  home  region. 

4.  Describe  the  occupations  of  the  people  of  the  home  re- 

gion, the  various  things  they  produce,  and  how  they 
exchange  their  products. 

5.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  home  region  and  surrounding  trade 

centers,  and  show  the  commercial  relation  between  the 
home  region  and  the  trade  centers. 

6.  State  the  effects  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

7.  Tell  stories  of  characteristic  people  of  different  parts  of 

the  world. 

8.  Name  the  races  of  men  and   state  their  chief  character- 

istics. 

9.  Draw  outline  maps  of  the  grand  divisions  and  locate  on 

them  the  most  important  land  and  water  forms  and 
cities. 


166    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

10.  Summarize  the  geography  of  each  grand  division  and  the 

United  States  as  per  outline  on  North  America. 

III. — Upper  Form. 

159.  The  purposes  of  the  work  in  the  Upper  Form  are: 

1.  To  furnish  pupils  the  elementary  facts  of  mathema- 

tical geography. 

2.  To  give  pupils  power  to  interpret  maps. 

3.  To  extend  the  work  in  industrial  geography  in  the 

study  of  the  important  countries  of  the  world. 

4.  To  give  pupils  a  detailed  knowledge  of  the  geog- 

raphy of  the  United  states  and  of  Wisconsin. 

5.  To   give  pupils  a   bird's  eye  view  of  the  physio- 

graphic and  industrial  geography  of  the  world. 

160.      COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

First  Year— Upper  Form. 

I.  Essentials  of  Mathematical  Geography. 

1.  Shape  and  size  of  the  earth. 
•    2.  Cause  of  day  and  night. 

3.  Definitions  of  points  and  lines,  produced  by  rotation 

of  the  earth. 

4.  The  cause  of  the  seasons  and  the  location  of  the 

zones. 

11.  The  Earth  Studied  as  a  Whole. 

1.  The  wearing  away  of  the  land,  the  work  of  streams, 

glaciers,  waves  and  tides  and  underground  water. 

2.  Temperature,  zones  and  heat  belts. 

3.  Ocean  currents. 

4.  General  circulation  of  the  air  and  rain-fall. 

5.  Plants  and  animals,  and  their  distribution. 

6.  Races  of  men,  and  man's  progress. 

7.  Occupations  and  industries. 


GEOGRAPHY.  107 

III.  North  America. 

1.  North  America  studied  as  a  whole. 

2.  The  United  States. 

3.  Wisconsin. 

4.  Canada. 

5.  Mexico,  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

Second  Year — Upper  Form. 

IV.  South  America. 
V.  Europe. 

VI.  Asia. 
VII.  Africa. 
VIII.  Australia  and  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

Third  Year — Upper  Form. 
IX.  Summaries. 

161.  General  suggestions. 

In  teaching  the  geography  of  the  other  countries  the  method 
as  outlined  under  the  United  States  should  be  taken  as  a  guide. 
The  study  of  each  grand  division  as  a  whole  should  be  followed 
by  the  careful  study  of  the  most  important  countries.  The  less 
important  countries  should  also  receive  attention,  but  care 
should  be  exercised  in  reserving  sufficient  time  for  emphasizing 
the  study  of  the  important  countries.  The  countries  of  South 
America  which  should  receive  m'ost  attention  are  Brazil,  Argen- 
tina and  Chili;  of  Europe,  Great  Britan  and  Ireland,  Germany, 
Russia  and  France;  of  Asia,  Japan,  China  and  India;  of  Africa, 
Cape  Colony  and  Egypt. 

Every  school  should  be  supplied  with  a  full  set  of  outline 
maps  in  a  roller  case.  These  maps  should  be  political  maps 
but  there  should  be  also  one  physical  outline  map  of  the  world 
and  if  possible  a  physical  map  of  the  United  States  and  of 
Europe. 

The  rapid  sketching  of  maps  should  have  a  prominent  place 
in  each  year's  work  and  there  should  be  frequent  reviews  of 
"place"  geography. 


1G8          MANUAL   OF    THE  ELEMENT  ARYjCOURSE   OF   STUDY. 

Pupils  should -be  encouraged  to  read  many  library  books  dur- 
ing the  year,  relating  to  geographical  subjects. 

The  last  year  should  be  devoted  to  the  general  summary  a? 
indicated  on  pp.184-7,  and  the  last  few  months  of  this  year 
should  be  given  to  a  review  of  the  essentials  of  the  geography 
of  the  United  States  and  Wisconsin. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS  AND  ANALYSIS  OF  SUBJECT 

MATTER. 

I.    Essentials  of  Mathematical  Geography. 

162.  The  fundamental  facts  of  Mathematical  Geography 
were  taught  in  the  Middle  Form.  These  should  be  reviewed 
before  taking  up  the  subject  in  the  advanced  book. 

While  it  has  been  customary  to  treat  of  Mathematical  Geo- 
graphy during  the  beginning  of  the  first  year  of  the  Upper 
Form,  it  may  be  best  to  defer  this  subject  until  the  end  of  the 
year. 

II.     The  Earth  Studied  as  a  Whole. 

163-  The  physiography  of  the  home  region-  should  be  re- 
viewed in  connection  with  the  text  book  study  of  the  topic, 
The  Earth  as  a  Whole. 

As  a  result  of  the  text  book  study  of  topics  number  two, 
three  and  four,  pupils  should  be  able  to — 

(1.)  Indicate  on  the  map  of  the  world  the  areas  over  which 
the  trade  winds  blow,  the  areas  over  which  the  west- 
erly winds  or  anti-trades  blow,  and  the  three  regions 
of  calms. 

(2.)  Indicate  on  a  map  the  climatic  regions  of  the  world. 

(3.)  Indicate  on  a  map  the  ocean  currents  and  state  whether 
they  are  warm  or  cold  currents. 

(4.)  State  the  conditions  upon  which  rainfall  depends,  and 
indicate  on  a  map  of  the  world  the  regions  of  light, 
medium  and  heavy  rainfall. 


GEOGRAPHY.  1G9 

Pupils  should  not  be  required,  except  in  a  very  general  way, 
to  state  reasons  for  the  above.  A  possible  exception  is  the, 
topic  rainfall.  If  pupils  understand  clearly  the  conditions  upon 
which  rainfall  depends,  the  teacher  may  by  judickvio  question- 
ing get  pupils  to  account  for  the  distribution  o*  rain  and  snow. 
The  rainfall  map  of  the  world  should  be  carefully  studied  with 
this  end  in  view.  In  connection  with  this  topic  the  teacher  may 
teach  a  few  facts  in  regard  to  cyclonL  storms  and  their  relation 
to  rainfall  in  the  temperate  zones,  but  it  is  probably  best  to 
postpone  the  study  of  this  topic  until  the  climate  of  the  United 
States  is  considered.  If  the  climate  of  the  world,  including 
temperature,  general  circulation  of  the  air  and  rainfall,  is  thor- 
oughly understood  it  will  greatly  simplify  the  "study  of  any 
grand  division  or  country. 

In  teaching  topics  five,  six  and  seven  under  the  subject,  The 
Earth,  as  a  Whole,  show  how  climate  influences  the  distribu- 
tion of  plants  and  animals  of  the  earth. 

III.     North  America. 
Topic  1.     North  America  as  a  Unit. 

164.  Before  taking  up  the  text  book  work  on  North  America 
the  teacher  should  review  what  the  pupils  learned  about  North 
America  in  the  Middle  Form.     Most  of  the  large  facts  in  re- 
gard to  temperature,  winds  and  rainfall  were  taught  in  connec- 
tion with  the  study  of  the  world  as  a  whole. 

Pupils  should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  map  and  text 
book  and  be  prepared  to  sketch  maps  of  North  America  and 
insert  the  important  land  and  water  forms  and  cities,  the  heat 
and  rain  belts,  and  the  forest  areas.  They  should  be  required 
to  recite  topically  on  any  subject  relating  to  North  America. 

Topic  2.     The  United  States. 

165.  The  work  on  the  United  States  is  outlined  fully  with  a 
view  to  having  it  suggest  the  method  to  be  followed  in  teach- 
ing the  geography  of  the  rest  of  the  world. 


170         MANUAL   OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 
SCOPE   OF   WORK. 

1.  Position. 

2.  Location  of  states  and  their  capitals. 

3.  Location  of  the  important  land  and  water  forms  and  cities: 

4.  How  to  sketch  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States. 

5.  Surface  and  drainage. 

6.  Climate. 

7.  Population  and  character  of  the  people. 

8.  Industries  and  commerce. 

9.  Physiographic   and  industrial  geography   of   groups   of 

states. 

10.  Summaries   of  the    most   important  industries    of    the 

United  States. 

11.  Intensive  study  of  a  few  typical  states. 

12.  Important  trade  centers. 

Unit  I.     Position. 

166.  Suggestive  map  questions  which  pupils  should  answer 
as  a  result  of  map-study: 

What  is  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  United  States? 
In  what  zone  is  it?  What  climate  does  this  suggest?  Through 
how  many  degrees  of  latitude  does  the  United  States  extend? 
Through  how  many  degrees  of  longitude?  What  is  the  length 
in  miles  of  the  United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific? 
The  width  from  north  to  south  in  miles?  What  is  the  dis- 
tance in  miles  between  meridian  90°  west  and  the  meridian  of 
Greenwich  on  parallel  40  ? 

Pupils  should  be  required  to  summarize  this  topic  somewhat 
as  follows: 

The  United  States  lies  between  the  parallel  25'J  and  49° 
North  latitude,  and  between  meridian  67°  and  125°  West 
longitude.  It  is  wholly  in  the  North  temperate  zone.  The 
northern  half  has  cold  winters  and  warm  summers,  and  the 
southern  half  has  mild  winters  and  warm  summers. 

The  United  States  extends  through  about  25°  of  latitude  and 
60°  of  longitude.  The  length  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
ocean  is  about  3,000  miles;  the  width  from  north  to  south  is 
about  1,500  miles.  Meridian  90°  W.  is  about  4,000  miles  from 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich  on  parallel  40°  N. 


GEOGRAPHY.  171 

Unit  II.     Location  of  States  and  Their  Capitals. 

167.  Exercises  like  the  following  will  illustrate  the  mode  of 
procedure  in  teaching  this  unit: 

1.  Pupils  should  find  the    states  and    their   capitals  on  the 
maps  in  their  book  and  learn  to  spoil  the  names. 

2.  They    should   answer  questions  like  the  following,  first, 
while  looking  at  the  map,  then  without  looking   at  the   map: 
Name  the  states  that  border  on   Wisconsin.     Name  the  states 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  beginning  with  Wisconsin. 
Name  the  states  bordering  on  the  Great  Lakes  in  order,  begin- 
ning with  Minnesota.     Name  the  states   bordering  on  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Mexico,  in  order,  beginning 
with  Maine.     Through  what  states  would  you   pass  in  going 
directly  west  from  Wisconsin.     Locate  in   space,  by  pointing, 
the  different  states  as  they  are  named  by  the  teacher  or  pupils. 

168.  Unit  III.     Location  of  the  Important  Land  and  Water 

Forms  and  Cities. 

The  teacher  should  make  a  list  of  the  important  land  and 
water  forms  and  cities  to  be  learned  by  pupils.  This  list  should 
not  contain  too  many  names. 

169.  Unit  IV.  How  to  Sketch  an  Outline  Map  of  the  United 

States. 

The  teacher  should  enclose  a  map  of  the  United  States  by  a 
rectangle.  Pupils  should  determine  the  proportions  of  the 
rectangle.  They  should  then  observe  the  points  in  the  rect- 
angle where  the  outline  of  the  map  touches  the  sides  of  the 
rectangle.  They  should  practice  sketching  maps  of  the  United 
States,  always  drawing  the  rectangle  first. 

170.   Unit  V.     Surface  and  Drainage. 

The  teacher  should  require  pupils  to  determine  the  surface 
and  drainage  from  a  careful  study  of  the  physical  map  in  the 
text  book.  The  text  book  should  V»e  studied  to  secure  the  sum- 


172    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

mary.  In  connection  with  this  topic  pupils  should  read  ami 
report  on  the  topics  relating  to  this  unit. 

Pupils  should  be  required  to  sketch  rapidly  a  map  of  the 
United  States  and  indicate  thereon  the  principal  highlands  and 
lowlands  and  drainage  systems. 

References: 

The  Great  Lakes:  King's  Geographical  Reader,  Book  II,  129-139; 
Carpenter's  North  America,  172-179,  190-195;  World  and  its 
People,  Vol.  IV,  68-83;  Guyot's  Geographical  Reader,  46-56; 
Around  the  World,  Bk.  3,  63-73. 

Mississippi  River:  King's  Geographical  Reader,  Book  II,  98-108; 
King's  Geographical  Reader,  Book  IV,  31-42;  Carpenter's 
North  America,  135-138,  150-159;  Guyot's  Geographical 
Reader,  20-37. 

Niagara  Falls:  Carpenter's  North  America,  195-202;  Our  Coun- 
try: East,  3-8;  Around  the  World,  Book  3,  23-27;  Wonders 
of  Nature,  79-89. 

Mammoth  Cave:  Our  Country:  East,  57-64;  Century  Book  of 
Famous  Ameri  ans,  173-174;  Wonders  of  Nature,  283-294; 
Nagle's  Philosophy. 

Great  Salt  Lake:  Carpenter's  North  America,  259-264;  Around 
the  world,  Bk.  3,  147-1-19;  Naglu's  Philosophy. 

Grand  Canon:  Our  Country:  West,  161-166;  Carpenter's  North 
America,  259-264;  King's  Geographical  Reader,  Book  II, 
109-119;  Nagle's  Philosophy. 

Florida  Everglades:  Our  Country:  East,  96-100;  Nagle's  Phil- 
osophy. 

Hudson  River:    Guyot's  Geographical  Reader,  27-46. 

Yellowstone  Park:  Picturesque  Geographical  Reader,  Bk.  2,  48 
57;  Our  Country:  West,  78-85;  Nagle's  Philosophy. 

171.     Unit  VI.     Climate. 

A  study  of  the  map  should  precede  the  study  of  the  text 
book.  Questions  like  the  following  should  be  asked:  Between 
what  parallels  of  latitude  does  the  United  States  lie?  What 
does  that  suggest  in  regard  to  climate?  Name  the  ocean  cur- 
rents that  flow  along  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  What  is 
the  character  of  each  in  regard  to  temperature?  In  what  wind 
zone  is  the  United  States?  What  temperature  do  the  wesf 


GBOGEAPHT.  173 

winds  bring  to  the  western  coast  states  in  summer?  In  winter? 
Is  the  region  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  Great  Plains  warm 
or  cold  in  winter?  In  summer?  What  is  the  temperature  of 
the  winds  blowing  from  these  regions  in  summer?  In  winter? 
Do  the  west  winds  that  blow  from  the  ocean  bring  rain  to  the 
west  coast  in  winter?  In  summer?  Why?  Are  the  west  winds 
blowing  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  and  Great  Plains 
rain-bearing  winds?  Why?  What  makes  it  possible  for  the 
warm  south  winds  to  sweep  across  the  United  States?  Do  they 
bring  rain?  Why  is  the  New  England  coast  cooler  in  winter 
than  the  coast  of  Washington  or  Oregon? 

After  pupils  have  answered  questions  like  the  above  they 
should  study  the  temperature  and  rainfall  charts  found  in  their 
text  books  and  attempt  to  explain  the  broad  climatic  regions 
and  rainfall. 

They  should  then  study  their  text  books  for  a  summary  of 
tk'j  unit,  Climate. 

As  one  of  the  tests  on  this  unit  pupils  should  be  required  to 
LLftch  rapidly  a  map  of  the  United  States  indicating  the  tem- 
perature belts  and  the  rainfall  area. 

In  connection  with  this  unit  the  teacher  should  give  the  pu- 
pils elementary  notions  of  cyclonic  storms  of  the  United  States 
and  their  effect  on  rain  fall.  As  a  preparation  for  teaching 
this  topic  it  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  carefully  study 
the  discussion  of  cyclonic  storms  in  Harrington's  little  book, 
"About  the  Weather,"  "Tarr's  Elementary  Physical  Geogra- 
phy," or  any  other  good  physical  geography. 

172.  Unit  VII.     Population  and  Character  of  the  People. 

Pupils  should  be  required  to  find  out  the  population  per 
square  mile  of  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Compari- 
sons should  be  made  with  England,  Germany  and  other  coun- 
tries. Pupils  should  then  study  the  unit  as  presented  in  the 
text  book  and  summarize  it. 


174    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OP  STUDY. 

173.  Unit  VIII.     Industries  and  Commerce  of  the  United 

States. 

This  unit  can  be  resolved  into  the  following  sub-units: 

1.  Agriculture  and  horticulture.  2.  Fishing.  3.  Lumber- 
ing. 4.  Mining.  5.  Herding.  6.  Manufacturing.  7.  Chief 
exports  and  imports. 

174:.  The  teacher  should  review  briefly  the  surface  and  drain- 
age, and  climate  of  the  United  States,  and  the  physical  condi- 
tions that  determine  the  production  of  cereals  and  other  food 
products.  Then  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  they  should 
locate  the  great  agricultural  regions  and  name  the  probable 
products.  They  should  then  study  their  text  books  for  de- 
tailed and  accurate  information  and  summarize  each  topic. 
The  subject  "Irrigation"  should  be  studied  in  connection  with 
this  unit. 

Unit  IX.  Physiographic  and   Industrial  Geography  of  Groups 

of  States. 

175.  This  unit  may  be  resolved  into  the  following  sub-units: 

1.  The  New  England  States.  2.  The  Middle  Atlantic  States, 
3.  The  Southern  states  of  the  Mississippi  river  basin.  4.  The 
Northern  states  of  the  Mississippi  river  basin.  5.  The  Plateau 
states.  6.  The  Pacific  slope  States.  7.  Possessions  of  the 
United  States. 

The  following  treatment  of  the  geography  of  the  Pacific 
Slope  states  will  suggest  the  method  of  procedure  for  teaching 
each  sub-unit: 

In  teaching  this  unit  the  teacher  should  review  and  apply 
what  pupils  already  know  relating  to  the  subject.  Thus  pupils 
can  be  made  to  realize  that  often  the  fundamentals  of  a  new 
subject  are  already  known  to  them  and  need  but  be  applied  to 
new  conditions.  The  teacher  should  review  so  much  of  the 
surface,  climate,  people,  and  production  areas  of  the  United 
States  as  relates  to  the  Coast  states. 

This  review  and  the  topic  the  "Surface  and  Coast"  might 
constitute  the  first  day's  work  on  this  unit.  Under  the  direc- 


GEOGRAPHY.  175 

tion  of  the  teacher,  pupils  should  study  a  physical  map  of  the 
United  States  and  answer  questions  like  the  following:  Point 
out  the  mountainous  regions.  Point  out  the  lowland  plains." 
What  parts  of  California  and  Oregon  belong  to  the  great  pla- 
teau belt?  How  high  are  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains?  The 
Coast  range?  The  plains?  Locate  the  harbors  on  the  coast. 

As  a  preparation  for  the  next  day  pupils  should  review  the 
above  questions  and  search  their  geographies  and  geograpical 
readers  forfacts  on  the  surface  and  drainage  of  the  Coast  states. 
A  few  pupils  should  be  required  to  prepare  on  special  topics  to 
report  in  class  the  next  day.  Topics  like  the  following  may  be 
suggestive:  The  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  Death  valley, 
Yosemite  valley,  Columbia  river. 

The  next  day  pupils  should  be  required  to  summarize  this 
unit  and  list  to  reports  on  special  topics.  The  assignment  for 
the  next  day  might  be  placed  on  the  board  as  follows: 

(1)  Name  the  states  on  the  Pacific  coast,  according  to  size. 

(2)  Compare  the  area  of  each  with  that  of  Wisconsin. 

(3)  Locate  the  important  rivers  and  cities  in  each  state. 

(4)  Find  the  population  of  each  state  and  compare  it  with 

that  of  Wisconsin. 

(5)  What  is  the  population  of  each  state  per  square  mile? 

Make  comparisons  with  the  population  of  Wisconsin? 

(6)  What  in  general  is  the  character  of  the  people? 

(7)  Summarize  this  unit. 

The  next  day  pupils  should  answer  questions  like  the  above, 
and  then  summarize  the  unit.  As  a  preparation  for  the  fol- 
lowing day  they  might  be  required  to  write  on  the  topic,  Sur- 
face and  Drainage  of  the  Coast  States. 

The  recitation  time  of  the  following  day  should  be  spent  in 
discussing  with  the  pupils  questions  relating  to  the  climate  ol 
these  states.  Questions  like  the  following  should  be  consid- 
ered: 

Locate  the  group  of  states  in  the  wind  zones  of  the  earth. 
What  ocean  current  sweeps  along  the  coast?  What  is  the  tem- 
perature of  the  winds  blowing  from  the  ocean  in  winter?  In 


176          MANUAL   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

summer?  The  New  England  states  are  in  the  same  latitude 
as  Washington  and  Oregon.  Explain  the  difference  in  climate. 
Where  and  when  is  the  rainfall  the  heaviest  in  the  Pacific  coast 
states?  Why  has  Southern  California  so  little  rain?.  Why  i? 
the  climate  much  drier  east  of  the  mountains?  Why  are  the 
summers  much  hotter  and  the  winters  much  cooler  east  of  the 
mountains  than  they  are  west  of  the  mountains? 

Possibly  all  of  the  questions  cannot  be  considered  in  class. 
They  should  then  be  written  on  the  board  to  be  worked  out  by 
pupils.  They  are  problem  questions  and  appeal  to  the  reasoning 
power  fully  as  much  as  do  problems  in  arithmetic. 

After  the  subject  of  climate  has  been  considered  in  class, 
pupils  should  search  their  geographies  for  facts,  and  summar- 
ize the  unit.  This  may  be  done  either  orally  or  in  writing. 

Pupils  are  now  ready  to  study  the  topic  "Occupations  and 
Industries."  While  some  work  preliminary  to  the  study  of 
the  text  book  should  be  undertaken  most  of  the  time  should  be 
devoted  by  the  pupils  to  studying  their  text  books  and  geo- 
graphical readers.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  report  on 
special  topics  like  the  following: 

The  Fairy  Land  of  California,  264-274,  Carpenter's  North 
America;  Raisin  Making,  143-147,  Our  Country:  West;  Big 
Trees  of  California,  132-133,  Our  Country:  West;  Salmon 
Fishing,  281-283,  Carpenter's  North  America;  San  Francisco 
and  the  Chinese,  274-278,  Carpenter's  North  America;  Nagle's 
Philosophy.  19-29 

Finally  the  pupils  must  summarize  what  they  have  learned. 

The  fallowing  outline  will  be  suggestive: 

1.  Surface  and  drainage. 

2.  Climate:  Temperature,  winds  and  rainfall.      Comparison 
with  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 

3.  Industries  and  principal  products. 

4.  Collecting  and  distributing  centers. 

5.  Exports  and  imports  and  commercial  routes. 

6.  The  principal  products  for  which  each  state  is  noted. 


GEOGRAPHY. 

176,  Unit  X.     Summaries    of  the  Most   Important  Indus- 
tries of  the  United  States. 

The  following  industries  should  be  considered: 

1.  Wheat  and  flour:  2,  Corn  and  corn  meal;  3.  Cattle  and 
dairying;  4.  Coal  and  iron;  5.  Lumber;  6.  Leather;  7.  Petro- 
leum; 8.  Wool  and  woolens;  9.  Cotton;  10.  Sugar  and  rice. 

The  following  suggestions  on  the  teaching  of  the  sub-unit 
"Wheat  and  flour"  will  suggest  method  of  treatment  of  the 
other  sub-units. 

In  most  geographies  maps  are  found  showing  production  re- 
gions. Pupils  should  indicate  the  important  wheat  regions  and 
from  their  text  books  and  table  of  statistics  gather  facts  in  re- 
gard to  the  population  of  these  regions,  and  deter  mine  whether 
there  is  a  surplus  of  wheat  raised.  They  should  learn  the 
most  important  collecting  and  distributing  centers  for  wheat 
and  flour,  and  the  ocean-exporting  centers  and  commercial 
routes.  They  should  find  out  what  countries  buy  our  surplus 
wheat  and  flour  and  how  they  pay  for  these  products.  Pupils 
should  read  and  report  on  as  many  of  the  references  under 
"Wheat  and  Flour"  as  possible. 

Wheat  and  flour:  Great  American  Industries,  Vol.  II,  ISO- 
ITS;  Carpenter's  North  America,  164-171;  Stories  of  Country 
Life,  14-17;  Around  the  World,  Bk.  3,  76-81;  Payne,  Geo- 
graphical Nature  Studies,  104;  Corn  Plants,  75-79;  Home 
Geography,  88-92. 

The  teacher  should  prepare  references  to  books  in  the  library 
treating  of  the  various  industries  which  should  be  used  in  a 
similar  manner  in  which  those  on  wheat  and  flour  were  used- 

After  each  industry  is  taught, 'pupils  should  be  able  to  sketch 
rapidly  a  map  of  the  United  States,  indicate  area  of  production, 
and  summarize  either  orally  or  in  writing  the  entire  topic. 

177.     Unit  XL     The  Study  of  Certain  Typical  States,  e.  g.: 

1.  Texas.      2.  California.      3.  Minnesota.      4.  Colorado.     5 
Pennsylvania.     6.  Massachusetts.     7.  New  York, 
13— C, 


178    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

In  the  work  on  individual  states  the  teacher  should  first  he.ve 
the  pupils  tell  all  they  know  about  the  particular  state  t}a*  is 
studied.  If  the  work  on  the  sections  of  the  United  Sta.ten  is 
properly  clone  it  will  be  found  that  pupils  will  give  a  fairly  ex- 
haustive summary  of  the  geography  of  each  state  witho  it  ap- 
pealing to  the  text  book  for  facts. 

178.  Unit  XII.     Important  Trade  Centers. 

The  following  trade  centers  should  be  considered:  1.  1  )uluih- 
Superior.  2.  St.  Paul-Minneapolis.  3.  St.  Louis.  4.  Chio/jgo. 
5.  Milwaukee.  6.  New  Orleans.  7.  San  Francisco.  8  Ta- 
coma-Seattle.  9.  Baltimore.  10.  Philadelphia.  11.  Bo /.ton. 
12.  New  York. 

The  following  will  suggest  a  method  of  procedure  in  teach- 
ing the  trade  center,  Chicago: 

With  books  open  pupils  should  be  led  to  observe  that  Chi 
cago  is  in  the  center  of  the  great  agricultural  region  of  the 
United  States;  that  it  is  a  center  of  many  railroad/j  which 
make  the  agricultural  region  tributary  to  it;  that  Chkago  has 
water  communications  with  the  cities  along  the  Great  Lakes 
and  New  York,  and  with  the  cities  on  the  Mississippi  river;  that 
Chicago  has  railroad  and  water  communications  with  the  great 
lumber,  iron,  and  copper  regions  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin, 
and  Michigan;  that  Chicago  is  within  easy  access  of  the  coal 
fields  of  Illinois,  and  that  it  has  railroad  and  water  communi- 
cation with  the  great  coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania. 

Pupils  should  study  their  text  books  and  tables  of  statistics 
and  be  prepared  to  make  a  summary  of  Chicago  as  a  collect- 
ing and  distributing  center.  They  should  rapidly  sketch  a 
map  of  the  United  States  and  trace  the  movements  of  lumber, 
wheat  and  corn,  livestock,  iron,  coal,  etc.,  to  and  from  Chicago. 

The  other  trade  centers  of  the  United  States  should  be  taken 
up  in  a  similar  way. 


OEOQR  kPHY.  179 

Topic  3.     Wisconsin. 

179.  Scope  of  work. 

1.  Position. 

a.  Absolute  and  relative. 

b.  Influence  of  position  on  climate. 

2.  Area  and  population. 

3.  The  principal  land  and  water  forms  and  cities. 

4.  How  to  sketch  an  outline  map  of  the  state. 

5.  Surface  and  drainage. 

6.  Climate. 

7.  The  agricultural  regions. 

8.  Lumbering. 

9.  Mining. 

10.  Paper  and  pulp  industry. 

11.  Quarrying. 

12.  The  important  trade  centers  of  the  state. 

180.  Unit  I.     Absolute  and  Relative  Position. 

A  study  of  the  map  should  precede  the  study  of  the  text  book. 
Questions  like  the  following  should  be  asked: 

1.  Between   what   parallels   does   Wisconsin   lie?     Between 
what  meridians?    What  is   the  greatest   length  of  Wisconsin 
from  north  to  south?     From  east  to  west?     Estimate  in  miles 
the  length  of  the  shore  line  upon  the  lakes.     How  far  is  Wis- 
consin from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico?     From  the  equator?     How  far 
is  it  from  the  Atlantic  ocean?     From  the  Pacific?     How  far  is 
meridian  90°  W.  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  in  degrees? 
In  miles? 

2.  Bound  Wisconsin.     Bound  Michigan.     What  marked  dif- 
ference is  there  between  the  boundary  of  Wisconsin  and  Michi- 
gan?   Through  what  states,  countries,  and  bodies  of  water  does 
meridian  90°  W.  pass?     Parallel  45°  N.? 

Pupils  should  summarize  this  unit. 

181.  Unit  II.     Area  and  Population. 

Pupils  should  be  required  to  compare  the  area  of  Wisconsin 
with  that  of  other  states,  and  with  the  area  of  the  most  impor- 


ISO    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

tant  countries  of  Europe.  They  should  compare  the  population 
of  Wisconsin,  per  square  mile,  with  that  of  Germany,  France, 
Denmark,  and  Belgium. 

182.  Unit  III.     The  Principal  Land  and  Water  Forms  and 

Cities. 

The  teacher  should  make  a  list  of  the  important  land  and 
water  forms  and  cities  of  Wisconsin  and  have  pupils  find  them 
on  the  map.  Conduct  drill  exercises  as  suggested  by  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Name  the  cities  on  the  Wisconsin  river  beginning  with  Prai- 
rie du  Chien.  Name  the  cities  on  Lake  Michigan  beginning 
with  Kenosha.  Point  in  the  direction  of  Milwaukee,  Madison, 
Ashland,  Oshkosh,  etc.  What  direction  is  Oshkosh  from  Mani- 
towoc?  From  Janes ville,  etc.?  How  far  is  it  from  Sheboygan 
to  Milwaukee?  Use  this  distance  as  a  unit  of  measurement  in 
estimating  the  distance  between  Milwaukee  and  Madison,  be- 
tween Superior  and  Green  Bay,  etc. 

183.  Unit  IV.  To  Sketch  an  Outline  Map  of  Wisconsin. 
The  teacher  should  carefully  draw  an  outline  map  of  the 
state  on  the  blackboard  and  enclose  it  by  a  square  and  have  the 
pupils  study  the  map  to  get  a  picture  of  its  form  and  out- 
line. Pupils  should  then  practice  sketching  the  map,  always 
first  drawing  the  square. 

184.     Unit  V.     Surface  and  Drainage. 

Sketch  a  physical  map  of  Wisconsin  on  the  blackboard  and 
by  means  of  questions  like  the  following  lead  pupils  to  inter- 
pret the  map: 

1.  Name  the  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Mississippi.  In  what 
general  direction  do  the  rivers  flow?  How  does  the  land  slope 
that  is  drained  by  these  rivers?  Name  the  rivers  that  How 
into  Lake  Michigan  and  Lake  Superior.  What  do  these  rivers 
tell  us  of  the  slope  of  the  land?  Draw  a  dotted  line  on  the  map, 
separating  the  head  waters  of  all  the  rivers  flowing  into  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  181 

Mississippi  from  those  flowing  into  Lakes  Superior  and 
Michigan.  What  does  this  line  represent?  To  what  two  great 
basins  does  Wisconsin  belong?  Draw  dotted  lines  enclosing 
the  basin  of  the  lower  Wisconsin  river,  and  also  lines  enclosing 
the  basin  of  the  Fox  including  Lake  Winnebago.  Are  these 
basins  practically  continuous? 

Pupils  should  then  study  this  unit  as  presented  in  their  text 
book. 

As  a  final  test  they  should  be  required  to  rapidly  sketch  a 
map  of  the  state  and  summarize  the  entire  topic. 

185.  Unit  VI.     Climate. 

The  teacher  should  bring  the  knowledge  pupils  already  have 
to  bear  on  this  topic.  Questions  like  the  following  mav  be  sug- 
gestive: 

1.  In  what   zone  is  Wisconsin?      In  what   part   of    North 
America?     In  what  wind  zone?     Where  do  the    winds  come 
from  that  blow  over  Wisconsin  in  winter?     What  climate  do 
they  bring?    Where  have  the  winds  been  that  blow  over  Wis- 
consin in  the  summer?    What  is  the  temperature  of  those  re- 
gions?    Compare  the  winds  of  Wisconsin  with  those  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Oregon  in  summer.     In  winter.     Explain  the  dif- 
ference.    What  effect  have  Lake  Michigan  and  Lake  Superior 
upon  the  climate  of  the  state?     Compare  the  climate  of  Michi- 
gan with  that  of  Wisconsin.     Account  for  the  difference. 

2.  In  what  rainfall  region  of  the  United  States  is  Wisconsin? 
Explain  that  the  rainfall  of  the  state  is  due  to  cyclonic  storm? 
What  is  the  average  rainfall  of  Wisconsin?     Why  is  it  impo;  ,- 
ant  that  about  half  of  the  amount  of  rain  falls  in  spring  <<> ad 
summer?     Do  the  crops  in  Wisconsin  get  sunshine  longer  1  .\an 
those  in  the  southern  states?     What  is  the  effect  of  this? 

Pupils  should  study  the  text  book  and  then  summari-,.,  the 
entire  topic,  "Climate." 

ISO.   Unit  VII.     Agricultural  Products. 
Pupils  should  search  their  text  books  for  facts   renting  to 
soil  and  agricultural  products  and  then  sketch  a  map  indicat- 


182    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

ing  (a)  the  fertile  soil  regions;  (b)  the  comparatively  unfertile 
soil  region.  Name  the  important  agricultural  products  of  the 
state.  In  what  parts  of  the  state  is  stock  raising  an  important 
occupation?  Locate  the  important  potato  region. 

Locate  the  principal  cranberry  marshes.  In  what  part  of 
Wisconsin  is  tobacco  raised?  How  is  tobacco  cultivated  and 
cured?  What  are  the  most  important  tobacco  centers  in  the 
state?  What  does  the  text  book  say  in  regard  to  dairying  and 
cheese  making  in  the  state?  Where  would  you  expect  to  find 
the  greatest  number  of  creameries  and  dairies?  Why? 

In  summarizing  this  unit  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to 
make  use  freely  of  sketch  maps  in  indicating  agricultural  areas. 

187.    Unit  VIII.     Lumbering. 

Pupils  should  search  their  geographies  for  facts  in  regard  to 
this  industry  and  summarize  by  doing  the  following: 

1.  Sketch  a  map  locating  the  lumber  region  and  name  the 
different  kinds  of  lumber  produced. 

2.  Name  the  important  lumber  centers  of  the  state. 

3.  State  how  the  lumber  reaches  the  market. 

4.  Woodenware  factories  and  their  products. 

Pupils  should  read,  or  listen  to  formal  talks  by  the  teacher 
on  the  following: 

1.  Past  conditions  of  timber  area  of  Wisconsin. 

2.  Present  conditions. 

3.  Remedial  and  protective  needs. 

(a)  How    European    countries    manage    their    forest 

areas. 

(b)  How  waste  can  be  prevented  by  forestry  manage- 

ment.    (1)  Fires.     (2)   Proper  methods  of  cut- 
ting timber. 

(c)  How  the  forest  areas  may  be  restocked. 

(d)  What  schools  can  do  in  creating  public  sentiment. 

NOTE.— A  good  book  on  "Wisconsin  Forests"  is  Bulletin  1  of  the 
Wisconsin  Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey,  by  Filbert  Roth. 


GEOGRAPHY.  183 

188.  Unit  IX.     Mining. 

Pupils  should  search  their  geographies  for  facts  in  regard  to 
iron  and  lead  mining,  and  manufacturing  industries,  and 
answer  questions  like  the  following: 

Where  are  the  important  iron,  lead,  and  zinc  regions  of  Wis- 
consin? How  is  iron  ore  mined  and  smelted?  What  is  Besse- 
mer steel?  How  is  steel  made?  Name  important  iron  prod- 
ucts. How  is  lead  ore  mined  and  smelted?  What  are  the  im- 
portant lead  centers?  For  what  purposes  are  lead  and  zinc 
used?  Name  the  cities  engaged  in  the  lead  and  zinc  industries. 

Pupils  should  sketch  maps  showing  the  lead  and  iron  re- 
gions of  the  state. 

A  summary  of  the  iron  and  lead  industries  of  the  state 
should  be  called  for  at  the  close  of  the  work  on  this  unit. 

189.  Unit  X.     Paper  and  Pulp  Industry. 

The  teacher  should  review  briefly  what  the  pupils  have 
learned  about  pulp  and  paper  making.  The  pupils  should 
then  be*  required  to  search  their  geographies  for  facts  in  regard 
to  the  paper  and  pulp  industry  of  the  state,  and  answer  ques- 
tions like  the  following: 

What  cities  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  pulp  and 
paper?  What  natural  conditions  help  to  make  Wisconsin  so 
important  a  state  in  the  manufacture  of  pulp  and  paper?  De- 
scribe the  manufacture  of  pulp  and  paper. 

190.  Unit  XI.     Quarrying. 

After  a  study  of  the  text  book  pupils  should  answer  ques- 
tions like  the  following: 

Enumerate  all  the  purposes  for  which  limestone  and  granite 
are  used.  Search  your  text  books  for  facts  in  regard  to  "quar- 
rying" and  then  summarize  the  unit. 

191.  Unit  XII.     The  Trade  Centers  of  Wisconsin. 

Teach  the  largest  trade  center  of  the  county  in  which  your 
school  is  located  according  to  the  following  outline: 

1.  Indicate  the  area  of  the  tributary  region.     What  does  this 


184         MANUAL   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY  COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

region  produce  in  excess  of  its  needs?  What  is  the  function  of 
the  smaller  trade  centers  in  this  "region?  How  do  the  surplus 
products  reach  the  city? 

2.  Is  the  city  the  final  market  for  the  products  of  the  tribu- 
tary region?     What  is  the  destination  of  the  products?     Has 
the  city  any  advantages  of  position  as  an  exporting   center? 
What  do  the  people  in  the  tributary  region  consume  that  they 
cannot  or  do  not  produce?    Where  do  they  obtain  these  things? 
To  what  extent  does  the  city  act  as  a  distributing  center  for 
this  region?     How  does  the  city  obtain  the  manufactured  prod- 
ucts, groceries,  coal,  etc.?    What  articles  are  manufactured  in 
the  city? 

3.  Pupils  should  practice    sketching  a  map  indicating  the 
above,  and  then  give  a  summary  of  the  city  as  a  trade  center. 

Pupils  should  search  their  text  books  for  facts  relating  to  the 
fifteen  most  important  cities  of  Wisconsin,  and  indicate  the 
probable  trade  area  of  each,  and  state  the  imports  and  exports 
of  each. 

NOTE.— In  teaching  the  geography  of  the  other  countries  the  method 
as  outlined  under  North  America  and  the  United  States  should  be  fol- 
lowed. The  study  of  each  grand  division  as  a  whole  should  be  followed 
by  the  careful  study  of  the  most  important  countries.  The  less  impor- 
tant countries  should  also  receive  attention,  but  care  should  be  exercised 
in  reserving  sufficient  time  for  emphasizing  the  study  of  the  important 
countries.  The  countries  of  South  America  which  should  receive  most 
attention  are  Brazil,  Argentina  and  Chili;  of  Europe,  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  Germany,  Russia  and  France;  of  Asia,  Japan,  India  and  China; 
of  Africa,  Cape  Colony  and  Egypt. 

General  Summary. 

192.  The  last  few  months  of  the  Upper  Form  should  be  de- 
voted to  a  general  review  of  the  geography  of  the  world  and  a 
special  review  of  the  geography  of  the  United  States  and  Wis- 
consin.- The  topics  and  questions  indicated  below  will  cover 
the  subject  matter  for  review: 

1.  Name  and  locate  the  capes,  peninsulas,  islands,  gulfs, 
bays,  straits,  plateaus,  mountains,  plains,  countries 
and  cities  of  the  world. 


GEOGRAPHY.  185 

2.  State  the  size  and  shape  of  each  grand  division   and 

sketch  a  map  of  each. 

3.  Describe  the  surface  of  each  grand  division  of  the  United 

States  and  of  Wisconsin. 

4.  Name  the  countries  and  bodies  of  water  through  which 

the  equator  and  each  of  the  tropic  circles  pass. 
6.  State  the  population  of  each  grand  division  and  state  the 
chief  characteristics  of  the  people. 

6.  State  the  cause  of  day  and  night. 

7.  State  the  causes  of  the  seasons. 

8.  Name  the  principal  rocks.     What  is  soil?    Name  the  dif- 

ferent kinds  of  soil  and  state  the  relative  productivity 
of  each. 

9.  Describe  the  wearing  away  of  the  land. 

10.  State  how  the  land  becomes  heated  and  cooled.     Why  is 

land  surface  much  colder  in  winter  and  much  warmer 
in  summer  than  water  surface? 

11.  Name  the  wind  zones  of  the  earth.     What  are  the  tra^ie 

winds  and  over  what  region  do  they  blow?  Name  the 
belts  of  calms  and  define  each.  Describe  the  mon- 
soons of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Over  what  parts  of  the  earth 
do  the  prevailing  westerlies  blow?  Describe  the  effect 
of  winds  on  climate. 

12.  Name  and  describe  the  important  ocean  currents.     How 

do  ocean  currents  affect  climate? 

13.  State  the  conditions  necessary  for  rainfall.     On  a  map  of 

the  world  indicate  the  regions  of  heavy,  moderate  and 
light  rainfall.  State  reasons  for  differences  in  rain- 
fall. 

11.  Name  and  locate  the  broad  climatic  zones  of  the  earth. 
Name  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  various  zones. 

15.  On  a  map  of  the  world  indicate  the  regions  where  cotton 
is  produced,  and  name  the  important  cotton  exporting 
cities.  Do  the  same  with  wheat,  corn,  beef  and  hides, 
rice,  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  wool,  lumber,  iron,  coal,  petro- 
leum, gold,  and  silver.  Trace  in  each  case  the  com- 
mercial routes. 


186          MANUAL   OF    THE   EJ>EMEJ\TTAEY   COURSE     )F   STUDY. 

I'l  On  a  map  of  the  world  indicate  the  important  manufac- 
turing regions  and  name  the  principal  articles  manu- 
factured. Trace  the  commercial  routes. 

17.  Discuss  the  following  topics: 

a.  How  water  power  helps  in  locating  manufacturing 

centers. 

b.  How  nearness  to  raw  materials  helps  to  determine 

the  location  of  manufacturing  industries. 

c.  How   steam  and  electricity   assist  in    developing 

manufacturing  industries. 

d.  How  rivers   and  harbors,    canals,  telegraphs  and 

telephones  affect  industrial  development. 

e.  How  governments  help  commerce. 

18.  Name  the  principal  fishing  regions  of  the  world  and  the 

products  or  kinds  of  fish. 

19.  Name  the  principal  exports  and  imports  of  New  Orleans, 

and  trace  the  ocean  routes.  Do  the  same  in  regard  to 
Vancouver  and  Seattle,  Duluth  and  Superior,  Chicago, 
Buffalo,  Montreal,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
New  York,  Liverpool,  London,  Antwerp,  Hamburg, 
Havre,  Marseilles,  Odessa,  Para,  Rio  Janeiro,  Monte- 
video, Buenos  Ayres,  Valparaiso,  Vera  Cruz,  Cape 
Town,  Bombay,  Calcutta,  Hongkong,  Shanghai,  Yoko- 
hama, Melbourne,  Manila. 

20.  On  a  map  of  the  world  show  the  distribution  of  the  dif- 

ferent races  of  men.  State  the  character1  sties  of  each 
race.  What  races  are  hindered  by  climatic  conditions 
from  becoming  highly  civilized? 

21.  On  a  map  of  the  world  indicate  density  of  population  of 

various  regions.  State  to  what  the  density  or  sparse- 
ness  of  population  may  be  due. 

22.  On  a  map  of  the  world  indicate  the  distribution  of  the 

chief  religions.     State  characteristics  of  each  religion. 
'_!'}.  Name  the  seven  greatest  powers  of  the  world  and  state 

what  constitutes  their  greatness. 
21.  What  factors  contribute  to  make  the  United  States  the 

greatest  food  producing  and  exporting  country  of  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  187 

World?    Name  the  principal   food    products.     Narre 
the  principal  countries  to  which  these  products  are  ex-_ 
ported,  trace  commercial  routes,  and  state  how  each 
country  pays  for  the  food  products. 

25.  What  factors  contribute  to  make  the  United  States  the 

most  important  manufacturing  country  of  the  world? 
Name  the  most  important  classes  of  articles  manufac- 
tured, and  the  principal  countries  that  buy  our  manu- 
factures. What  do  we  get  in  return?  Trace  commer- 
cial routes. 

26.  What    political  significance  attaches  to  the  fact  that  the 

United  States  exports  large  quantities  of  products  used 
for  food,  clothing  and  shelter? 

TESTS   FOR   GRADUATION. 

193.   A  written  examination  at  the  close  of  the  work  in  geog- 
raphy should  show  that  the  pupils  are  able: 

1.  To  locate  the  important  land  and   water    forms  and  cities 

of  the  world. 

2.  To  sketch  a  map  of   each  grand  division  and  the  United 

States,  and  be  able  to  describe  the  surface  and  drainage 
of  each. 

3.  To  describe  the  general  circulation   of   the    air,   and   the 

rainfall  regions  of  the  world. 

4.  To  locate  the  important  agricultural,  mining  and   manu- 

facturing regions  of  the  world,  and  name  the  surplus 
products  of  each. 

5.  To  name  th.3  most  important  ocean  seaports  and  state  the 

exports  and  imports  of   each  and  commercial  routes. 

6.  To  sketch   a  map  of   Wisconsin,  indicating  natural   fea- 

tures and  production  areas,  and  state  the  impor- 
tant products,  and  collecting  and  distributing  centers. 

7.  To  sketch  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  indicate   on  it 

the  important  production  areas,  collecting  and  distrib- 
uting centers. 

8.  To  answer  problem  questions  on  the  geography   of  the 

United  States  and  on  the  world. 


188         MANUAL   OF   THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

CIVICS. 

Middle  Form. 

194.  Purpose: — 

To  make  pupils  familiar  by  means  of  informal  exercises 
with  the  more  obvious  workings  of  local  government,  with  ele- 
mentary ideas  of  the  State  and  National  governments,  and  to 
stimulate  thinking  along  the  lines  of  good  citizenship. 

COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

195.  I.     Government  of  the  Home. 

Parents  provide  the  home,  food,  shelter,  comforts,  care,  en- 
couragement,— and  children  should  give  ready  and  cheerful 
obedience  to  parents. 

Suggestive  questions: — What  is  the  nature  of  the  govern- 
ment of  parents  when  children  are  good?  Not  good?  Did  you 
think  you  deserved  the  punishment  you  received  for  not  being 
good?  Do  the  opinions  of  the  children  have  any  weight  in  the 
family  government?  What  duties  are  assigned  you  in  tho  work 
of  the  home? 

190.  II.     Games. 

Baseball  Team: 

a.  The  membership  is  usually  made  up  of  those 

who  play. 

b.  Rules   are   made   by   a   body   of  competent 

men. 

c.  Captain  is   selected  to  direct  players  to  ut- 

most advantage.  What  are  the  qualities 
noted  in  a  captain?  By  whom  elected? 
Was  lie  elected  on  his  merits  or  were  other 
influences  at  work?  What  are  his  duties'! 
Do  players  ever  object  to  his  commands': 
How?  Why?  Is  there  rebellion  an  ong  the. 
players?  How  is  it  overcome? 


civics.  ISO 

d.  In  playing  other  teams  the  services  of  an  um- 

pire are  necessary.  Why?  Is  his  decision 
final?  In  what  respect  may  he  err?  What 
is  the  attitude  of  the  players  to  errors  made 
by  him?  Are  the  players  right  in  objecting 
to  his  decisions?  What  are  the  qualities  of 
a  successful  umpire? 

e.  Wliat  expenses    are    sustained?    Who   sup- 

plies the  funds?  Who  handles  the  funds? 
Qualities  of  a  treasurer? 

f.  How  does  the  team  secure  games? 

g.  Could  the  management  of  team  be  improved? 
The  organization  and  business  of  a  baseball  team  exemplify 

the  functions  of  legislative,  executive,  administrative,  and  ju- 
dicial activities,  and  bring  the  concrete  experience  of  the  pupils 
to  bear  on  these  activities  when  applied  to  actual  governments 
later. 
Other  athletic  organizations  exemplify  similar  principles. 

197.  III.     Public  Property. 

In  every  community  some  things,  such  as  schoolhouses, 
town  or  city  halls,  roads,  streets,  bridges,  and  parks,  belong  to 
all  of  the  people.  Such  property  is  called  public  property. 
Property,  such  as  houses,  farms,  cattle,  tools,  implements, 
boats  and  other  things  belonging  to  individuals,  is  known  as 
private  property. 

Suggestive  questions: — Name  the  different  kinds  of  public 
property  in  your  town.  What  use  is  made  of  it?  Who  makes 
the  rules  governing  the  use  of  it?  What  happens  when  one 
violates  these  rules? 

11)8.  IV.     The  School:- 

a.  The  school  is  an  institution   whose  purpose  is 

to  furnish  good  citizens. 

b.  It  is  made  up  primarily  of  teacher  and  pupils. 

c.  A   comfortable  building    with    suitable  desks, 

furniture,  apparatus,  and  books,  is  necessary, 


190          MANUAL   OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

d.  These,  with  the  salary  of  teacher,  are  expenses 

that  must  be  met. 

e.  These  expenses    must  be  determined  by   the 

school  board,  and  by  the  voters  of  the  school 
district, — and  the  money  for  defraying  them 
is  secured  by  taxation. 

f.  The  three  members  of  the  board  are  chosen  by 

the  voters  for  a  term  of  three  years  each,  and 
their  duties  include  the  hiring  of  teachers, 
the  care  of  the  school  property,  the  visitation 
of  the  schools,  and  recommending  means  for 
the  improvement  of  the  schools,  to  the  annual 
district  meeting.  What  men  should  be  se- 
lected to  serve  on  the  board?  Do  all  go  into 
office  at  the  same  time? 

g.  The  school  board,  with  the  co-operation  of  the 

teacher,  may  make  rules  for  the  government 
of  the  school.     What  should  be  the  attitude 
of  the  pupils  toward  those  rules?    What  is 
the  effect  of  disorderly  conduct,  of  untidiness, 
of  carelessness,    of  not   preparing   good    les~ 
sons,  of   tardiness,  or  of  irregularity  of   at- 
tendance on  the  work  done  in  the  school? 
Other  questions: — What  were  the  expenses  of  running  the 
school  in  your  district  last  year?    The  expenses  for  each  pupil 
enrolled?    Just  how  does  the  teacher  secure  pay  for  services? 
Read  the  order.     What  does  it  tell  you?    Write  such  an  order. 
What  does  the  county  superintendent  do  when  he  visits  your 
school?     Can  you  suggest  anything  that  pupils  might  do  to  im- 
prove the  work  done  by  the  school?     Appearance  of  grounds? 
What  is  the  area  of  your  district?     Is  the  school  house  desira- 
bly located?     How  might  the  state  or  nation   assist  in  paying 
the  expenses  of  the  schools?    What  subjects  are  taught?   Who 
determines  these?     What  books  in  your  school  library  would 
give  you  information  bearing  on  the  schools?    What  would 
happen  were  there  no  schools?    Do  you  know  some  countries 


civics.  191 

of    the   world  ha-^ng  few  schools   for  the   education  of    tho 

children? 

199.   V.     The  Town. 

a.  "Usually  covers  an  area  six  miles  square. 

b.  Public  works  such  as  roads,  bridges,  and  town 

isialls  are  found. 

c.  In  April  a  town  meeting  is  held,  at  which  all 

of  the  voters  of  the  town  are  expected  to  be 
present,  to  take  part  in  the  discussions  and 
to  vote. 

•4  At  this  meeting  the  officers  of  the  town  are 
selected,  the  amount  of  taxes  for  the  ensuing 
year  is  levied,  and  ways  and  means  for  the 
improvement  of  the  town  are  discussed  and 
voted  upon. 

*.  The  officers  chosen  are  a  chairman  and  two 
other  supervisors  who  make  up  the  town 
board,  a  clerk,  treasurer,  assessor,  justices  of 
the  peace,  and  constables. 

f.  These  officers  have  their  special  duties  and,  ex- 
cept justices  of  the  peace,  are  elected  for  one 
year. 

2.  Reports  of  the  government  of  the  town  are 
read,  and  recommendations  for  the  ensuing 
year  are  proposed. 

h.  The  town  meeting  trains  voters  in  the  method 
of  carrying  on  good  government,  enables 
those  who  take  part  to  see  more  than  one 
side  of  a  question,  and  trains  them  to  keep 
their  temper  under  control. 

Suggestive  questions: — What  was  done  at  the  last  town  meet- 
ing? What  improvements  were  suggested?  Do  you  think  of 
others  that  might  be  made?  Who  seemed  to  be  leaders  in  the 
discussions?  What  qualities  did  they  possess?  What  was  the 
jiiiiDiint  of  taxes  raised  last  year?  For  what  purposes  was  the 
money  o-xpended?  What  does  a  tax  receipt  tell  you?  Who  has 


192    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COUKSE  OF  STUDY. 

charge  of  the  money?  What  is  there  to  prevent  him  from 
using  it  for  his  own  purposes?  What  is  the  work  of  the 
assessor?  If  a  man  steals  property  in  your  town  what  officers 
would  see  to  it  that  he  was  tried?  What  rights  do  you  think 
an  accused  person  should  have?  What  people  can  vote  at  the 
meeting?  Should  others  he  given  that  right? 

200.  VI.     County. 

a.  Counties  are  made  up  of  towns,  cities  and  vil- 

lages and  are  created  by  the  state  legislature. 

b.  The  functions  of  a  county  are  to  establish  jus- 

tice, to  provide  public  works  which  towns 
alone  could  not  do,  and  to  provide  for  the 
keeping  of  public  records  such  as  deeds  of 
lands  and  wills. 

c.  The  county  board  is  made  up  of  a  member 

from  each  town,  village  and  ward  of  a  city, 
and  its  business  is  to  make  laws  for  the  county. 

d.  The  executive  officer  of  a  county  is  the  sheriff, 

who  preserves  public  order  and  brings  wrong- 
doers to  justice. 

e.  Taxes  are  collected  by  the  county  treasurer  who 

pays  out  money  on  the  order  of  the  clerk  and 
chairman  of  the  county  board. 

f.  Other  county  officials  are  the  register  of  deeds, 

clerk,  clerk  of  court,  district  attorney,  super- 
intendent of  schools,  surveyor  and  county 
judge. 

Suggestive  questions: — How  many  counties  in  Wisconsin? 
The  area  and  population  of  your  county?  The  county  seat?  Is 
it  centrally  located?  How  many  members  in  the  county  board? 
What  were  the  expenses  of  your  county  last  year?  What  por- 
tion did  your  town  pay?  How  was  it  determined?  What  does 
a  deed  tell  you?  Why  should  we  have  a  county  judge?  What 
could  one  learn  by  a  visit  to  the  court  house?  What  differences 
do  you  note  between  the  town  meeting  and  county  board  meet- 
ing? 


civics.  1U3 

201.  VII.     The  state. 

a.  The  state  is  made  up  of  a  large  number  of 

counties,  governed  according  to  a  constitu- 
tion. 

b.  The  state  capitol,  where  the  governor  resides* 

and  the  legislature  meets,  is  Madison. 

c.  The  legislature  is   made  up  of  two  houses,  a 

senate  of  thirty-three  members  and  an  as- 
sembly of  one  hundred  members,  elected  by 
the  voters  of  the  state. 

d.  The  legislature  makes  the  laws  for  the  people 

of  the  state,  and  these  laws  must  receive  the 
assent  of  the  governor. 

e.  The  governor  is  the  executive  officer  of  the 

state,  and  is  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  state. 

f.  The  supreme  court  of  the  state  meets  at  Madi- 

son and  tries  cases  arising  under  the  state 
laws.  It  has  final  decision  upon  important 
cases,  and  may  declare  a  law  unconstitu- 
tional. 

Suggestive  questions: — When  and  how  did  Wisconsin  become 
a  state?  What  is  its  area?  Its  population?  Bo  and  Wiscon- 
sin. Who  can  vote  in  Wisconsin?  Who  must  obey  the  laws? 
Where  would  you  find  the  laws  that  are  in  force  in  Wisconsin? 
Do  you  know  some  important  measures  passed  by  the  last  ses- 
sion of  the  legislature?  For  what  purposes  does  the  state  ex- 
pend most  money?  Name  the  governor.  By  what  party  was. 
he  elected?  What  do  the  pictures  in  the  Blue  Book  tell  you 
about  the  government  of  Wisconsin?  Who  is  your  assembly- 
man? Your  senator?  What  political  party  has  a  majority  in 
the  legislature? 

202.  VIII.     Nation. 

a.  The  nation  is  composed  of  forty-five  states. 

b.  Laws  are  made  by   congress  which   is  com- 

posed of  a  senate  of  ninety  members,  and  a 
14— O. 


194    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

house  of  representatives  of  three  hundred 
and  eighty-seven  members. 

c.  Congress  enacts   such  laws  as  the  constitu- 

tion empowers  it  to  enact. 

d.  These  laws  are  signed  by  the  president  who 

executes  them. 

e.  Most   officers  of  the   United    States  are  ap- 

pointed, and  for  most  positions  those  who 
desire  to  secure  them  are  obliged  to  pass  a 
written  examination. 

f.  Our  relations  with  foreign  countries  are  gov- 

erned by  treaties  made  by  the  president  and 
senate. 

g.  The  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  has 

jurisdiction  over  important  questions  aris- 
ing under  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States. 

Suggestive  questions: — How  much  money  is  expended  by  the 
United  States  annually?  How  is  this  money  secured?  What 
different  kinds  of  United  States  money  have  you  seen?  Who 
is  your  representative  in  congress?  Who  are  your  senators? 
Who  are  citizens?  Name  the  president  and  vice-president. 
Who  chooses  them?  What  were  the  boundaries  of  the  United 
States  when  the  constitution  was  adopted?  What  are  its  pres- 
ent boundaries?  Name  the  political  parties  of  the  United 
States.  How  are  we  protected  against  foreign  countries?  The 
population  and  area  of  our  country?  What  would  a  visit  to 
the  White  House  teach  you?  Why  is  not  Washington  cen- 
trally located? 

Upper  Form. 

COURSE    OF   STUDY. 

203.  United  States  constitution. 

I.     Brief  review  of    the  historical  events   leading  to  the 
formation  of  the  constitution.  (See  History  Outline.) 


195 


II.     Preamble:  —  Source    of   power    recognized,    purpose? 

stated. 
III.     Legislative. 

1.  Reasons  for  having  two  houses. 

2.  Study  each  house  as  to  membership,  eligibility, 

vacancies,  officers,  powers,  salaries. 

3.  Who  are   the    senators    from  Wisconsin?     The 

member  of  the  house  of  representatives  from 
your  district? 

4.  The  process  of  law  making,  and  the  importance 

of  committees  in  the  process.  How  committees 
are  selected  in  each  house.  The  great  powers 
of  the  speaker. 

5.  The  powers  of   congress.     Congress   can  enact 

such  laws  only  as  are  authorized  or  implied  by 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  or  such 
laws  as  are  necessary  to  good  government  un- 
der the  constitution. 

6.  Financial  powers. 

a.  The  amount  of  money  needed  to  run  the 

government. 

b.  Power  to  levy  and  collect  taxes.     Learn  Cl. 

1,  Sec.  8,  Art.  I.  See  also  Cl.  3,  Sec.  2, 
Art.  I;  Cl.  4-5,  Sec.  9,  Art.  I;  Cl.  2-3, 
Sec.  10,  Art.  I.  (Cl-clause.) 

c.  Where  bills  for  revenue  must  originate. 

d.  Distinguish  direct  and  indirect  taxes,  duties, 

tariff,  imposts,  excises,  customs,  internal 
revenue. 

e.  The   great   difference   in  mode  of  national 

and  state  taxation. 

f.  Power  to  borrow  money.    How  this  is  done. 

Present  debt. 

g.  Coining  of  money. 

h.  Punishment  for  counterfeiting. 


10G         MANUAL   OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

7.  Commercial  powers. 

a.  Learn  01.  3,    Sec.   8,  Art.  I.     See  also  01. 

5-6,  Sec.  9,  Art.  I. 

b.  Who   are    immigrants?     Number    coming 

each  year.     Would  you  be  in  favor  of  en- 
couraging   or    restricting    immigration? 
How? 

c.  Name  some   great  acts  of  congress  in  rela- 

tion to  commerce. 

8.  How  a  foreigner  may  become  a  citizen. 

9.  The  postal  system. 

10.  The  military  powers.     See  01.  11,  12,  13,  14,  15, 

16,  Sec.  8,  Art.  I. 

11.  The  implied  powers,  01.  18. 

12.  Name  some  great  measures    considered  at  the 

the  present  or  last  session  of  congress. 

13.  Name  some  powers  denied  to  congress  and  the 

several  states.    Sections  9  and  10,  Art.  I. 

204.  IV.    The  Executive. 

1.  Where  .vested? 

2.  Constitutional  provisions  as  to  choosing  a  presi- 

dent. 

3.  How  political  parties  carry  out  those  provisions. 

4.  The  elections  of  1800  and  1876. 

5.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  president. 

6.  The  Spoils  system  and  Civil  Service  Reform. 

7.  Recommendations  of  the  president  to  congress 

in  his  last  message. 

8.  The  cabinet  and  its  work. 

9.  Impeachment. 

205.  V.    The  Judiciary. 

1.  Where  vested. 

2.  Term  of  office  and  mode  of  selection  of  judges. 

3.  The  principal  courts  and  their  jurisdiction. 


civics.  197 

4.  The  rights  of  accused  persons.    Sec.  3,  Art.  Ill, 

Am.  IV,  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII. 

5.  Treason — its  definition  and  punishment. 

206.  VI.  The  relations  of  states,  return  of  fugitives  from  jus- 

tice, admission  of  new  states,  control  of  territory, 
and  guaranty  of  republican  form  of  government. 
Art.  IV. 

207.  VII.  How  constitution  may  be  amended.     Art.  V. 

208.  VIII.  Supreme  law  of  the  land.     Art.  VI,  Sec.  2. 

209.  IX.  Oath  of  office.     Art.  VI,  Sec.  3. 

210.  X.  Ratification.     Art.  VII. 

211.  XI.  Slavery  abolished.     Am.  XIII. 

212.  XII.  Citizenship  and  suffrage.     Am.  XIV,  XV. 

WISCONSIN   CONSTITUTION. 

213.  I.  Fundamental  principles  of  the  bill  of   rights.     Find 

similar  provisions  in  the  United  States  constitution. 

214.  II.  The  qualifications  of  voters.     Art.  III. 

215.  III.  The  legislature:  Its  composition  and  powers.     Com- 

pare congress.  Measures  of  importance  enacted 
at  last  session.  Problems  for  present  or  next 
session.  Art.  IV. 

216.  IV.  The  executive — Qualifications.     Powers  and  duties 

of  governor.     Art.  V. 

217.  V.  The  administrative  as  distinguished  from  the  execu- 

tive. The  Blue  Book  gives  pictures  of  many  of 
the  institutions  under  the  control  of  the  administra- 
tive department.  Art.  VI. 

218.  VI.  Judiciary:  Courts  named  and  brief  consideration  of 

jurisdiction.  Manner  of  selecting  judges.  De- 
scription of  trial  in  justice  court.  Art.  VII. 


198    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

219.  VII.  Finance. 

a.  Amount  of  money  needed  to   meet  expenses  of 
the  state. 

b.  Sources  of  state  revenue. 

c.  The  levy,  apportionment,  assessment,  and  col- 

lection of  taxes. 

d.  The  taxation  of  corporations. 

e.  Property  exempt  from  taxation. 

Art.  VIII. 

320.  VIII.  Education. 

a.  Purpose  of  providing  schools. 

b.  Who  may  and  must  attend. 

c.  How  expenses  are  met. 

d.  The  meaning  and  amount  of  the  school  fund. 

Art  X. 

221.   IX.  How  the  constitution  is  amended.     Art.  XII. 

POLITICAL   PARTIES. 

1.  Definition  and  purpose. 

2.  The  great  parties  and  their  leaders  today. 

3.  What  these  parties   believe  about  the  govern- 

ment.   What  questions  divide  them?    What 
questions  formerly  divided  them? 

4.  How   parties    nominate   candidates   for  office. 

The  Primary  Election  Law  in  Wisconsin. 

5.  The  party  committees  and  what  is  expected  of 

them. 

6.  How  campaigns  are  conducted. 

7.  How  people  vote.     The  Australian  Ballot  Sys- 

tem. 

a.  Purpose  of  the  system? 

b.  What  does  the  ballot  contain? 

c.  Who  prints  it?     Why? 

d.  How  does  the  voter  mark  it? 

e.  Secure  a  sample  bal]ot  and  study  it. 


civics.  199 

8.  What  are  the  qualities  of  a  good  citizen,  and 
what  should  be  his  attitude  toward  parties? 

SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS. 

222.  Since  the  public  school  is  maintained  in>the  interest  of 
good  citizenship,  the  pupils  should  have  a  chance  to  learn  the 
things  needful  for  them  to  know  in  order  to  do  well  their  part 
in  the  management  of  public  affairs.     For  the  highest  class  in 
the  common  school  this  may  include  a  study  of  the  history,  and 
something  of  the  philosophy  of  our  form  of  national  and  state 
government;  but  for  less  advanced  pupils  it  is  best  to  direct 
their  attention  mainly  to  such  facts  of  government,  either  local 
or  national,  as  are  directly  observable  by  the  pupils,  or  which 
form  mailer  of  general  conversation  among  their  elders.     Of 
the  first  class  are  town  meetings  and  school  district  meetings: 
of  the  latter  are  caucuses,  conventions,  elections,  and  sessions 
of  the  legislature. 

Mention  some  important  points  to  which  the  first  sentence  alludes. 

223.  A   suitable  method  of  presenting  the   main  facts  per- 
taining to  these  subjects  is  through  general  exercises,  in  which 
those  who  know  anything  about  the  subject  discussed  may  take 
part;  and  all  can  be  stimulated  to  ask  questions  at  home,  or  to 
consult  the  text-books.     The  best  time  to  present  any  topic  is 
when  it  is  occupying  public  attention  and  is   therefore  under 
discussion  in  the  public  prints. 

How  can  the  teacher  best  arouse  interest  in  these  topics? 

224.  Where  a  separate  advanced  class  is  possible,  any  satis- 
factory text-book  may  be  used  and  a  variety  of  text-books  in 
this  subject  is  no  misfortune.     The  preceding  outline  of  topics 
may  be  considered  suggestive  only,  and  by  no  means  exhaus- 
tive. 

What  is  the  value  of  using  several  texts  in  this  subject?    What  is  the 
danger? 


200    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

225.  If  the  circumstances  of  the  school  permit,  the  study  of 
the  constitution  may  properly  be  begun  when  the   class  has 
reached  that  point  in  the  history  of  the  United  States  where  it 
became  necessary  to  unite  the  colonies  in  some  form  of  goverL- 
»ient.     The  later  topics  in  that  study  have  prepared  the  way 
for  the  introduction  of  this,  whrch  may  accompany  the  study 
of  the  constitutional  period  in  history,  or  be  taken  later,  separ- 
ately, as  a  means  of  review  of  political  history. 

Why  should  the  study  of  the  Colonial  Period  precede  the  study  of  the 
Constitution? 

Study  the  constitution  topically,  until  its  more  obvious  pur- 
pose, spirit  and  meaning  are  grasped,  and  the  form  of  govern- 
ment therein  provided  is  understood. 

What  is  meant  by  studying  the  constitution  topically? 

Subsequently,  the  constitution  may  be  studied  as  a  whole,  in 
a  kind  o-f  review,  by  critical,  consecutive  reading,  accompanied 
by  a  skillful  questioning  upon  its  meaning  and  practical  appli 
cation. 

What  are  some  practical  applications? 

Where  the  work  herein  suggested  has  been  done  with  reason- 
able intelligence  and  thoroughness,  the  study  of  the  state  con- 
stitution will  be  comparatively  easy,  full  of  interest,  and  will 
require  but  little  time. 

226.  Constant  reference  to  real  events  in  the  history  of  the 
country  and  of  the  state  will  aid  in  impressing  pupils  with  the 
fact  that  these  organic  laws  are  documents  in  which  every  citi- 
zen has  a  personal,  vital  interest,  and  about  which  he  should 
be  well  informed. 

Why  connect  the  study  of  constitution  so  closely  with  history? 

227.  The  progress  of  an  important  bill  through  congress  may 
be  traced  by  the  aid  of  the  newspapers.  The  opening  and  clos- 
ing of  the  annual  sessions  may  be  studied  in  like  manner,  and 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  section  or  clause  of  the  con- 
stitution illustrated.     The  action  of  the  president  or  governor 


civics.  201 

in  calling  out  troops  to  quell  a  riot  should  ho  traced,  separating 
official  action  from  the  mass  of  recorded  incidents. 

Why  make  this  close  connection  between  the  study  of  constitution 
and  current  events'? 

228.  The  apportionment  into  legislative  districts   may  be 
studied  in  the  Blue  Book,  and  from  the  maps  therein  given,  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  the  constitutional  provisions;  and 
the  pupils  may  at  least  acquaint  themselves  with  the  limits  of 
the  various  districts,  congressional,  judicial,  senatorial,  and  so 
on,  of  which  they  are  residents. 

229.  In  studying  the  several  powers  of  congress,  it  will  be 
found  interesting  and  profitable  to  refer  any  bills  or  laws  of 
which  the  class  have  knowledge,  as  the  inter-state  commerce 
law  or  the  silver  bill,  to  the  several  clauses  by  which  they  are 
authorized. 

How  may  the  knowledge  called  for  in  the  first  sentence  of  the  third 
paragraph  best  be  obtained? 

Also  find,  if  possible,  some  laws  passed  by  congress  to  carry 
into  effect  each  power  conferred  by  section  eight  of  Art.  I.  of 
the  constitution.  A  careful  study  of  this  section  will  impress 
the  student  with  the  magnitude  of  the  work  of  the  government 
and  its  complexity. 

An  understanding  of  how  the  constitution  is  carried  into  ef- 
fect in  the  actual  government  of  the  country  is  necessary  to  a 
clear  apprehension  of  the  meaning  of  the  text.  "The  main 
hope  of  the  usefulness  of  this  work  is  in  awakening  the  interest 
of  pupils  in  the  process  by  which  government  is  administered 
and  in  stimulating  them  to  talk  freely  about  the  various  sub- 
jects considered."  Study  the  texts  of  the  constitutions  more 
and  the  editor's  comments  less. 


202    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COUKSE  OF  STUDY. 


HISTORY. 


Primary  and  Middle  Forms. 

230.  Aims: 

The  leading  purpose  in  the  study  of  History  in  the  primary 
and  middle  forms  is  to  give  the  mind  material  out  of  which  it 
can  construct  pictures  of  events  that  have  taken  place  in  our 
country's  life.  Secondary  purposes  are  (a)  to  give  a  more 
thorough  knowledge  of  local  institutions;  (b)  to  establish  a 
habit  of  judging  men's  motives,  thoughts  and  feelings  through 
their  actions;  (c)  to  give  the  mind  the  habit  of  careful  observa- 
tion; (d)  to  prepare  for  future  reading  and  study;  (e)  to 
strengthen,  stimulate  and  cultivate  the  imagination. 

231.  II.     Course  of  Study: 

1.  Stories  told  by  teachers  to  pupils  relating  to  the  lives  of 
great  men  and  wromen: 

(a)  in  the  United  States; 

(b)  in  England. 

The  following  list  is  suggestive:  Columbus,  John  Smith, 
Miles  Standish,  Daniel  Boone,  Franklin,  Samuel  Adams, 
Washington,  Jefferson,  Mollie  Pitcher,  Webster,  Fulton,  Jack- 
son, Garrison,  Morse,  Lincoln,  Grant,  King  Alfred,  William 
the  Conqueror,  Queen  Isabellat  Queen  Elizabeth,  Cromwell, 
Gladstone. 

232.  2.  Stories  from  the   history   of   the  United   States  and 

other  countries: 

Anglo  Saxon  Invasion,  Conquest  of  England  by  Normans, 
Richard  I  and  Crusades,  John  and  Magna  Chart  a,  Great 
Armada,  Turks  and  Capture  of  Constantinople,  The  Discovery 
of  America,  The  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi  River,  The 


HISTORY.  £03 

Founding  of  Jamestown,  The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  The 
Dutch  in  America,  The  First  Thanksgiving,  Cromwell  and 
Puritans,  William  Penn  and  Great  Treaty,  Bill  of  Rights,  1689, 
The  Story  of  Marquette  and  La  Salle,  The  Story  of  the  Five 
Nations,  The  Struggle  for  the  Ohio  Country,  The  Stamp  Act 
and  the  Revolutionary  War,  The  Declaration  of  Independence, 
The  Story  of  the  Constitution. 

233.  3.  Stories  relating  to  Industrial  Life: 

The  Invention  of  the  Mariner's  Compass;  The  Invention  of 
Gunpowder;  The  Invention  of  Printing;  The  Making  of  Books; 
The  Modern  Newspaper;  The  Invention  of  the  Steam  Engine; 
The  Invention  sf  the  Steamboat;  The  Invention  of  the  Loco- 
motive; The  Building  of  Canals;  The  Building  of  Railroads; 
Candle;  Whale  Oil,  Kerosene;  Gas;  Electric  Lighting; 
Light-houses;  Implements  for  Planting  and  Harvesting;  In 
vention  of  the  Cotton  Gin;  The  Power  Loom;  Invention  of  the 
Sewing  Machine;  Methods  of  Ventilation  and  Heating;  The 
Electric  Telegraph:  The  Telephone;  The  Electric  Motor;  The 
Weather  Bureau. 

234.  4.  Stories  from  the  History  of  Wisconsin: 

The  French  in  Wisconsin,  Joliet,  Marquette  and  La  Salle, 
Pontiac's  Conspiracy,  Wisconsin  a  part  of  Northwest  Terri- 
tory, The  Discovery  of  Lead  Mines,  Black  Hawk  War,  1836 
Wisconsin  Territory,  Formation  of  the  State  Government, 
Story  of  Old  Abe,  J.  M.  Rusk. 

235.  Suggestions. 

In  making  selections  of  biographies  emphasize  those  of  men 
whose  acts  have  been  of  consequence  and  whose  influence  on 
American  History  has  been  of  more  good  than  evil.  The 
course  of  procedure  is  to  emphasize  boyhood  life,  as  that  ap- 
peals to  pupils, — the  environment  into  which  he  was  horn,  his 
amusements,  his  dress,  his  appearance,  his  occupation,  his 
school  life,  his  early  training  for  the  work  he  did  later,  the 
marked  traits  of  character  exhibited,  and  a  brief  mention  of 
the  great  things  he  did  later. 


204    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

235a.  Benjamin  Franklin  as  a  type: 

Pupils  should  learn  the  story  as  told  by  trie  teacher 
according  to  the  following  outline: 

1.  That  Benjamin  was  the  fifteenth  child  in  a 

family  of  seventeen  children. 

2.  That  his  parents  were  poor,  his  father  being  a 

maker  of  soap  and  candles. 

3.  How  Benjamin  began  to  read  when  he   was 

very  young,  and  in  school  studied  reading, 
writing,  spelling  and  arithmetic. 

4.  How  Benjamin  was  taken  out  of  school  to  as- 

sist his  father. 

5.  How  he  was  influenced  by  the  books  he  read,— 

the  Bible,  Plutarch's  Lives,  DeFoe's  Essays 
on  Projects,  Dr.  Mather's  Essays  to  do  Good, 
Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

6.  How  he  was  a  leader  among  the  boys  and  got 

into  many  scrapes. 

7.  How  he  carried  off  some  building  stones   to 

build  a  wharf,  and  how  he  tried  to  show  his 
father  how  useful  the  wharf  was,  and  how 
his  father  taught  him  that  what  was  not  hon- 
est was  not  useful. 

8.  How  at  thirteen  he  was  apprenticed  to    his 

brother  James,  a  printer. 

9.  How  Benjamin   wrote  articles  for  the  paper. 

How  he  saved  money  in  order  to  buy  books. 

10.  How  he  improved  his  style  of  writing  by  study- 

ing Addison. 

11.  How  he  ran  away  to  New  York  and  Phila- 

delphia? 

12.  How  he  first  appeared  in  Philadelphia,  and  his 

meeting  his  future  wife. 

13.  How  he  set  up  type  as  a  printer  and  printed 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac. 


HISTORY.  205 

14.  How  he  discovered  that  lightning  is  electricity, 

and  invented  the  lightning  rod. 

15.  How  he  aided  his  country  in  the  Revolutionary 

war,  and  in  making  its  constitution. 

Suggestive  questions. — What  influence  had  his  early  life  upon 
him?  Why  did  his  friends  like  him?  Would  you  have  en- 
joyed reading  the  books  he  read?  Was  it  right  for  him  to  run 
away  from  his  brother?  How  must  he  have  felt  when  he 
reached  Philadelphia?  In  what  way  did  he  show  his  love  for 
books? 

236.  The  historical  story  must  be  simple,  give  play  to  the 
imagination,  afford  opportunity  for  moral  and  intellectual 
judgments,  form  a  connected  whole  and  relate  itself  to  import- 
tant  events  in  United  States  history. 

236a.  The  story  of  La  Salle  as  a  type.  Pupils  should  learn 
the  story  as  told  or  read  by  the  teacher  according  to  following: 

1.  How  the  French  heard  wonderful  stories  of  a  great  river  in 
to  the  westward. 

2.  How  Marquette,  Joliet  and  others  had  partly  explored  the 
region. 

3.  How  La  Salle  determined  to  find  the  mouth  of  the  great 
river.     La  Salle' s  character. 

4.  How  the  Griffin  was  built. 

5.  How  they  voyaged  to  St.  Ignace. 

6.  How  they  prepared  for  the  trip  to  the  Illinois. 

7.  The  journey. 

8.  How  they  built  Ft.  Crevecoeur,   and  how  La    Salle    was 
obliged  to  return  to  Ft.  Frontenac. 

9.  How,  during  La  Salle' s  absence,  the  Illinois  Indians  were 
attacked  by  the  Iroquois,  and  how  Tonty,  La  Salle's  lieutenant, 
brought  about  a  treaty. 

10.  How  La  Salle's  followers  deserted  Tonty,  taking  tools, 
ammunition  and  supplies. 

11.  How  La  Salle  returned  to  the  Illinois    country  with  a 
large  company. 


206    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

12.  How  La  Salle  and  Tonty  were  reunited. 

13.  How  they  discovered  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  river 
and  took  possession  of  the  area  it  drained  in  the  name  of  the 
King  of  France. 

14.  How  La  Salle  returned  to  France  and  fitted  out  an  ex- 
pedition to  explore  the  region,  and  make  settlements. 

15.  How  they  missed  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  wandered 
thru  Texas  in  search  of  it,  and  how  they  suffered. 

16.  How  La  Salle  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  followers. 
Suggestive  questions. — What  kind  of  a  man  was  La  Salle? 

What  were  the  difficulties  in  building  the  Griffin?  Picture  the 
landing  at  St.  Ignace?  Why  was  La  Salle  gorgeously  dressed? 
What  would  he  take  on  a  voyage  to  the  Illinois  country?  Why 
did  his  followers  desert  him?  What  difficulties  did  he  encounter 
on  his  return  to  Ft.  Frontenac?  Picture  his  taking  possession 
of  the  Mississippi  region.  Why  should  they  miss  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  river?  What  was  the  motive  of  the  assassin? 

237.  An  elementary  text  may  be  used  by  the  pupils  in  the 
last  year  of  the   Middle   Form.     The  teacher   should  make  a 
judicious  selection  of  the  subject  matter,  and  have  the  stories 
center  around  an  ideal  historic  person  or  about  an  event  in 
history.     The  generalizations  of  the  text  will  be  made  more 
concrete  by  the  study  of  the  diagrams,  pictures  and  statistics 
of  the  text,  and  by  large  use  of  the  township  library  books. 

There  is  often  no  separate  class  for  the  study  of  history  in 
these  forms,  making  it  necessary  for  the  work  to  be  presented 
in  the  language  class,  as  the  material  presented  readily  adapts 
itself  to  this  work. 

SUGGESTIONS   TO  TEACHERS. 

238.  In  this  work  the  pupil  does  not  in  general  use  a  text- 
book, but  some  of  the  matter  found  in  the  reader  can  be  used, 
and  some  of  the  books  named  in  the  list  recommended  for  pub- 
lic school  libraries  will  be  found  especially  helpful. 

239.  This  is  the  story  period  of  the  child's  life.  While  imagi- 
nation is  the  strong  faculty,  children  at  this   age  can  really 


HISTORY.  207 

make  judgments  and  they  should  be  encouraged  to  do  so.  The 
stories  may  be  read,  or  better,  told  by  the  teacher  and  written 
by  the  class;  but  if  reading  matter  of  this  kind  suitable  for 
children  is  at  hand,  the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  read 
for  themselves;  but  the  daily  conversations  about  what  is  read 
should  not  be  omitted.*  The  work  is  preparatory;  the  object 
is  not  to  impart  a  systematically  arranged  body  of  knowledge, 
but  to  cultivate  in  the  minds  of  the  children  a  desire  and  dis- 
position to  learn  more  of  what  was  thought  and  done  by  those 
who  lived  before  us. 

24:0.  With  the  eagerness  that  youth  has  to  idealize,  adore, 
detest,  and  imitate,  it  is  the  right  of  every  pupil  at  this  impres- 
sionable age  to  come  under  the  influence  of  the  lives  of  the 
noble  men  and  women  who  have  made  America. 

Upper  Form. 

Aim: 

The  leading  purpose  in  the  Upper  Form  is  to  continue  the 
story  side  of  history— the  representative  phase,  in  the  first  two 
.rears  of  the  form,  and  develop  the  interpretative  powers  in  the 
last  year  of  the  form.  In  this  form  the  historical  judgment 
comes  into  life  and  is  given  practice.  Here  the  pupil  begins 
to  weigh  the  motives  of  men,  and  compare  actions.  He  here 
develops  a  rational  basis  for  his  patriotism.  He  is  challenged 
to  pass  judgment  on  the  actors  in  the  passing  drama  of  events. 

COURSE   OF   STUDY — TEXT-BOOK. 

241.    I.     Period  of  Discovery  and  Exploration. 

1.  Conditions    in   Europe  prior   to   discovery  of 
America. 

a.  Mariner's  compass. 

b.  Invention  of  printing. 

c.  Revival  of  learning. 


*  What  is  the  advantage  of  telling-  a  story  instead  of  reading  it?  What 
are  the  essentials  of  good  story  telling?  Show  the  importance  of  the 
object  mentioned  in  the  last  sentence.  The  selections  should  be  care- 
fully made. 


208         MANUAL,  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF    STUDY. 

d.  Trade  between  Asia  and  Europe. 

e.  Capture  of   Constantinople  by  Turks  in 

1453. 

2.  Study  of  leading  discoverers  and  explorers: 

Columbus  The  Cabots 

Vespucius  Balboa 

Magellan  Verrazano 

Cartier  Ribault 

Drake  Raleigh 
Hudson. 

3.  What  a  nation  had   to  do  to  make  good  its 

claim. 

4.  The  physical  character  of  North  America. 

5.  The  Indians: — Number,  location,  character,  or- 

ganization, and  government. 

242.  II.     Settlements. 

1.  London  an^  t^y  mouth  companies. 

2.  First  settlements  by  Spanish,  French,  English, 

and  Dutch. 

3.  European  conditkvts  favorable  to  colonization, 

a.  Changed  economic  conditions,  b.  En- 
larging natural  pover.  c.  Desire  to  convert 
Indians,  d.  Religious  and  political  persecu- 
tions. 

243.  HI.     Colonies. 

1.  Study  of  the  four  leadhig  colonies,  Virginia, 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Pennsylva- 
nia, according  to  following  outline,  the  others 
in  less  detail:— 

a.  Motive  for  colonization  and  the  right  to 

colonize. 

b.  Geographical  conditions. 

c.  First    settlement   aj\d   character   of   first 

settlers. 

d.  Plan  of  govern  raeni 


IIISTOKY.  209 

e.  Growth  of  colony  and  character  of  later 

settlers. 

f.  Changes  in  plan  of  government;  oppor^ 

tunity  for  self  government. 

g.  Trouble  with  Indians  and  with  governors. 
h.  Religious  troubles. 

i.   Industrial  development  and  social  condi- 
tions. 

j.    Education. 

Important  topics  to  be  treated  in  connection  with  history  of 
the  colonies: 

1.  First  Representative  Assembly. 

2.  Introduction  of  Slavery. 

3.  Mayflower  Compact. 

4.  Town  Meetings. 

5.  Roger  Williams. 

6.  New  England  Confederation. 

7.  Patroon  System  in  New  Netherlands. 

8.  Conquest  of  New  Netherlands  by  English. 

9.  Governor  Andros'  System  of  Government. 

10.  Bacon's  Rebellion. 

11.  Public  Education  in  New  England. 

12.  Founding  of  Harvard. 

244.  The  pupil  thru  the  study  of  the  colonies  should  be 
lo:l  to  see  two  distinct  types  of  development — the  northern 
type  represented  by  Massachusetts,  the  southern  by  Virginia- 
The  conditions  of  a  soil  not  easily  worked,  rigorous  climate, 
small  rivers  with  numerous  waterfalls,  making  necessary  the 
small  farms  on  which  nearly  all  their  food  was  produced,  emi- 
gration in  church  congregations,  public  schools  and  town  meet- 
ings developed  and  strengthened  the  idea  of  democracy,  or 
individuality  in  Massachusetts.  While  in  Virginia  the  fertile 
soil  and  genial  climate  made  possible  the  raising  of  large  crops 
of  rice,  tobacco,  and  later,  cotton, — which  could  be  cultivated 
by  unskilled  labor,  developing  the  institutions  of  social  inequal- 
ity and  slavery.  The  emigrants  were  individuals,  and  sought 
15— O. 


210          MAIN  UAL    OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE    OF    STUDY. 

to  secure  large  plantations  on  the  navigable  rivers,  making  few 
towns,  developing  the  ideas  of  the  country  as  the  unit  of  gov- 
ernment, private  schools,  and  aristocratic  notions  of  govern- 
ment. 

2 44 a.  2.  Relations  of  the  English  Colonies,  as  a  whole,  to  the 
mother  country.     Legislative  and   commercial  re- 
strictions; the  navigation  laws. 
Forms  of  Colonial  Government. 

24-4-b.  3.  The  French  in  America. 

a.  The  exploration  and  occupation  of  the  St.  Law- 

rence  and   Mississippi  valleys.     The  work  of 
Champlain,  Marquette,  Joliet,  and  La  Salle. 

b.  The  later  occupation  of  the  Ohio  valley,  1754-8. 

c.  The  purpose  of  France  in  colonizing  America  as 

contrasted  with  the  English. 

d.  French  colonists  in  1750.     Their  number,  occu- 

pations, religion,  relation  with  the  Indians  and 
government. 

244c.  4.  Intercolonial  Wars. 

1.  Brief  study  of  the  first  three  wars,  causes  and 

results. 

2.  French  and  Indian  War. 

a.  Causes, — remote  and  immediate. 

b.  The  relative  strength  of  French  and  Eng- 

lish in  America. 

c.  The  live  objective  points. 

d.  The  campaigns. 

e.  The  work  of  William  Pitt. 

f.  Capture  of  Quebec. 

g.  Wolf  and  Mont  calm. 

h.  The  work  of  the  American  Colonists  in  the 

war. 

i.    Treaty  of  Paris, 
j.    Results   of   war   to   France,  England,  and 

Colonies. 


HISTORY.  211 

244d.  5.  Pontiac's  Conspiracy. 

244e.  6.  Colonial  Life. 

a.  The  people,  their  number  and  nationality. 

b.  Social  differences. 

c.  Home  life  and  customs. 

d.  Means  of  education. 

e.  Religious  beliefs. 

f.  Industries  and  travel. 

244f.  7.  Forces  tending  to  keep  colonies  separate, 

a.  Differences  in  social  and  industrial  life. 

b.  Poor  means  of  transportation. 

c.  Colonial  pride. 

d.  Lack  of  intercourse  between  colonies. 

e.  England's  commercial  policy. 

f.  Development  of  self  reliance  in  America. 

g.  Quarrels  with  colonial  governors. 

244g.  8.  Forces  tending  to  unite  colonies. 

a.  Danger  from  French  and  Indians. 

b.  Sovereignty  of  England  recognized  by  colonies. 

c.  Colonial  congresses  of  1643,  1690,  1754. 

d.  The  French  and  Indian  War. 

e.  Navigation  laws. 

244k.  9.  Parliamentary  acts  affecting  colonies. 

a.  Efforts  to  change  colonial  charters. 

b.  The  Navigation  Acts  and  Acts  of  Trade. 

24-5.   IV.  The  Revolutionary  War. 
Causes: 

1.  Question  as  to  who  should  pay  war  debt 

incurred  in  French  and  Indian  war 
English  and  Colonial  ideas  contested. 

2.  New  schemes  of  Colonial  control  by  Eng- 

land. 

a.  Changes  in  boundaries. 

b.  Remodeling  of  charters. 


212          MANUAL   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF    STUDY. 

c.  Writs  of  assistance,  1761. 

d.  New  Navigation  Act,  1763. 

e.  Stamp  Act. 

1.  New  method  of  taxation. 

2.  Provisions. 

3.  Remonstrances  of  Colonies. 

3.  Stamp  Act  Congress,  1765. 

a.  Why  called? 

b.  Colonies  represented. 

c.  Work  done.     What  principles  were 

formulated. 

d.  Results — Stamp  Act  repealed,  17(>(>. 

Effect  in  England  and  America. 

4.  Efforts  of  Parliament  to   raise  taxes  by 

duties  on  imported  goods,  1767. 

5.  Resistance  to  these  taxes. 

6.  The  Boston  Massacre. 

7.  Committees  of  Correspondence. 

8.  The  Boston  Tea  Party. 

9.  The  Intolerable  or  Coercive  Acts  of  1774. 

10.  The    First  Continental   Congress,    1774. 

Compare  rts  purposes,  work  and  results 
with  Stamp  Act  Congress. 

11.  Lexington  and  Concord. 

12.  Causes      of      Revolution      summarized. 

Justify  the  American  Revolution. 

13.  The  War. 

1.  Government  by  the  Second  Conti- 

nental Congress.  What  powers  did 
it  exercise,  and  what  right  did  it 
have  to  exercise  them?  • 

2.  What    change    in  colonial  govern- 

ments was  necessary? 

3.  Raising  an  army  and   appointment 

of  Washington  as  commander-in- 
chief. 

4.  Hunker  Hill,  1775. 


HISTOET. 


213 


5.  Movement  toward  Independence. 

a.  Original  purpose  of  the  struggle 

was  to  secure  rights  as  English- 
men. 

b.  Failure  to  secure  these  rights  led 

colonists  to  securing  their  rights 
as  men. 

c.  The  Declaration  of  Independence. 

1.  Resolution  introduced  by  Rich- 

ard Henry  Lee. 

2.  Committee    appointed  to  draft. 

3.  Jefferson,  the  author. 

4.  Statement  of  rights. 

5.  Statement  of  grievances. 

6.  Statement  of  efforts  to  remedy 

grievances. 

7.  Declaration  of  Independence. 

8.  Effects. 

6.  Campaign  of  1776. 

a.  Strategic  importance  of  Hudson 
river.  Washington's  move- 
ments. 

7.  Campaign  of  1777. 

a.  Burgoyne's  Invasion. 

b.  Howe's    expedition    to    Philadel- 

phia. 

c.  Valley    Forge   and   sufferings    of 

army. 

8.  French  Alliance,  1778. 

a.  Work  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

9.  Campaigns  of  1778. 

10.  Treason  of  Benedict  Arnold. 

11.  War  in  the  South. 

a.  Green's  Campaign. 

b.  Siege  of  Yorktown. 

12.  Finances  of  the  Revolution. 

13.  The  navy. 


214          MANUAL   Utt   TUB   ELEMENTARY    COURSE    OF    STUDY. 

14.  Foreigners  in  Army. 

15.  Treaty  of  Peace,  -1783. 

a.  Nations  interested. 

b.  Terms  of  Treaty. 

c.  Give  original  boundaries    of  the 

United  States. 

16.  The    special   work  of    Washington, 

Morris,  Franklin,  John  Adams. 

244>.   V.    Formation  of  the  new  government. 

1.  The  work  of  the  second  Continental  Congress. 

2.  The  Articles  of  Confederation. 

a.  When  and  why  formed? 

b.  How  ratified? 

c.  Why  did  Maryland  delay  ratification? 

d.  Main  provisions. 

e.  Why  were  they  defective? 

3.  Work  accomplished  by  Confederation. 

Treaty  of  1783. 
Ordinance  1787. 

4.  The  Constitution. 

a.  What  led  to  the  calling  of  the  Annapolis 
convention  of  1786? 

b.  Of  Philadelphia  convention,  1787? 

c.  Did  Convention  do  as  it  was  instructed? 

d.  Leaders  in  the  convention? 

e.  Main  provisions. 

f.  How  ratified? 

g.  Arguments  for  and  against  ratification, 
h.  Influence  of  Hamilton  and  Madison. 

5.  The  Ordinance  of  1787. 

6.  The  critical  period,  1783  to  1789. 

347.  VI.     The  Constitutional  period. 

1.  The  election  and  inauguration -of  Washing- 

ton. 

2,  The  first  congress. 


HISTORY.  x_          215 

3.  The  first  cabinet. 

4.  Hamilton's  Financial  policy. 

a.  Financial  condition  at  time  of  Washing- 

ton's inauguration. 

b.  The  tariff. 

c.  Excise  laws  and  the  Whiskey  Rebellion. 

d.  The  assumption  of  state  debts. 

e.  The  funding  of  the  debt. 

f.  The  first  United  States  bank.     Purpose 

and  constitutionality. 

5.  Political  parties. 

Origin,  leaders  and  principles  of  Federalists 
and  Republican  parties. 

6.  The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws. 

7.  The  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions. 

8.  Election  of  1800. 

9.  The  Louisiana  Purchase. 

a.  Conditions  leading  to  its  acquisition. 

b.  The  importance  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

c.  Area  and  resources  of  region. 

d.  Constitutionality. 
10.  Struggle  for  Neutrality. 

a.  War  between  France  and  England,  1793. 

The  Neutrality  Proclamation. 

b.  Our  grievances  against  England.     The 

Jay  Treaty. 

c.  Our  grievances  against  France,    France 

aided  us  in  Revolution.  Should  we 
assist  France  now?  Genet.  Demands 
of  the  Directory.  The  x,  y,  z  affair. 
Naval  War.  Treaty  1800. 

d.  Impressment  of  our  seamen  and  seizures 

of  our  ships. 

e.  Jefferson's  retaliatory  measures.     Non- 

importation. The  Embargo.  Non-in- 
tercourse. 


216          MANUAL   OF  THE  ELEMENTABY  COUESE   OF    STUDY. 

f.  War  of  1812. 

1.  Causes. 

2.  Relative    strength    of  English    and 

Americans. 

3.  Campaigns.     Leaders. 

4.  Our  successes  on  sea. 

5.  Battle  of  New  Orleans. 

6.  Treaty  and  results. 

g.  The  Hartford  Convention. 

Compare  its  proceedings,  with  Virginia 
and  Kentucky  Resolutions. 

11.  The  new  policy  of  the  Republican    party  as 

seen  in  Tariff  act  of  1816.  Internal  Im- 
provements and  second  United  States 
Bank. 

12.  The  acquisition  of  Florida, 

13.  The  Monroe  Doctrine. 

a.  Occasion. 

b.  Principles. 

c.  Is  it  now  operative. 

14.  The  elections  of  1824  and    1828.     Compare 

election  of  1800. 

15.  Jackson  and  the  Spoils  system. 

a.  Character  of  Jackson. 

b.  His  relation  to  friends  and  enemies. 

c.  How  the  Spoils  system  is  used  to   fur- 

ther a  party's  interests. 

d.  How  Jackson  introduced  it  into  National 

politics  and  how  it  affected  the  public 
service. 

e.  Civil  Service  Reform. 

16.  Tariff  Legislation  and  Nullification  in  South 

Carolina. 

a.  Tariff  acts  of  1816,  1824,  1828. 

b.  How  they  affected  the  South. 

c.  Hayne's  attack  on  the  Constitution  and 

Webster's  defence. 


HISTOBT. 

d.  Jackson's  attitude. 

e.  Calhoun's  theory. 

f.  The  act  of  nullification. 

f.  Clay's  compromise.     Tariff,  1833. 
h.  Which  side  won? 

17.  The  second  United  States  Bank. 

a.  Purposes  and  how  served. 

b.  Jackson's  attack  upon  it. 

c.  His  veto  in  1832. 

d.  Removal  of  deposits. 

e.  Specie  circular  and  distribution  of  sur- 

plus among  states. 

f.  Panic  of  1837. 

g.  The  Sub-Treasury  scheme. 

18.  Election  of  1840.     Whigs  in  power. 

a.  Their  principles. 

b.  The  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty. 

c.  The  annexation  of  Texas. 

19.  The  Mexican  War. 

a.  Causes. 

b.  Relative  strength  of  the  parties.     Lead- 

ers. 

c.  Campaigns  on  the  Rio  Grande,  against 

the  city  of  Mexico,  and  in  California. 

d.  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo. 

20.  Acquisition  of  Oregon. 

21.  The  Slavery  Question. 

a.  Introduction  and  Growth  of  Slavery. 

b.  Invention  of  Cotton  Gin  and  its  effects. 

c.  The  Missouri  Compromise. 

d.  The  American  Anti-slavery  society  and 

William  Lloyd  Garrison. 

e.  The  Mexican   war,  discovery  of  gold  in 

California,  and  question  of  slavery  ex- 
tension. 

f.  Clay's    Compromise    measure    of    1850, 

and  the  enactment  of  a  new  Fugitive 
Slave  Law. 


MAM'AL   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF    STTTDY. 

g.  Summary  of  the  influence  of  Webster, 
Clay,  and  Calhoun  on  American  His- 
tory. 

h.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  and  its  rela- 
tion to  the  Missouri  Compromise. 

i.  The  formation  of  the  Republican  party. 
Its  principles. 

j.  The  Dred  Scott  Decision  and  how  it  af- 
fected the  extension  of  slavery. 

k.  The  John  Brown  raid. 

1.    Uncle  Tom's  Cabin. 

m.  The  election  of  1860.     Candidates,  Plat- 
forms, and  result.     Effect  on  South. 
22.  The  Civil  War. 

a.  Causes. 

b.  The  South  Carolina  Ordinance  of  Seces- 

sion, and  reasons  given  in  defense  of  it. 

c.  South  Carolina  followed  by  other  states. 

d.  The  establishment  of  the  government  of 

the  Confederate  states  of  America. 
How  would  the  constitution  differ  from 
the  Federal  constitution? 

e.  Lincoln's  Inaugural  address. 

f.  Fort  Sumpter  and  calls  for  troops. 

g.  The  Trent  affair. 

h.  Leaders  North  and  South. 

i.    The  war  itself.     Topics  centering  about 

1.  the  struggle    for    the  Mississippi, 

2.  the  blockade    of    Southern    ports, 

3.  attempt  to  capture  Richmond. 
(Biographies  of  Lincoln,  Grant,  Lee,  and 

Stonewall  Jackson.) 
j.    Legislation  during  the  war. 

a.  The  tariff  and  excise  laws. 

b.  National    Banks  and   Greenbacks, 

c.  Emancipation  Proclamation. 


HISTORY.  219 

k.  The  Thirteenth  Amendment. 

23.  Reconstruction. 

a.  Its  meaning. 

b.  Lincoln's  plan. 

c.  Lincoln's  assassination. 

d.  Johnson's  plan. 

e.  The  congressional  plan. 

f.  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Amendments. 

g.  Carpet  Baggers. 

h.  Removal  of  troops. 

i.    South  today,  industrially  and  politically. 

24.  Foreign  Relations. 

a.  French  in  Mexico. 

b.  The  purchase  of  Alaska. 

c.  The  Geneva  award. 

25.  Important  events  since  the  close  of  the  war. 

a.  The  Pacific  Railroads. 

b.  The  Panic  of  1873. 

c.  The  election  of  1876. 

d.  Labor  troubles. 

e.  Resumption  act  and  legislation  concern- 

ing silver. 

f.  Growth  of  Civil  Service  Reform. 

g.  Presidential  Succession  Law. 

h.  The  Inter-state  Commerce  Commission. 

i.  Tariff  Laws.— McKinley,  Wilson,  and 
Dingley  acts. 

j.  The  Columbian,  St.  Louis,  and  Portland 
Expositions.  Exclusion  of  Chinese, 
and  Immigration  problems. 

k.  Venezuela  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

1.    Trust  legislation. 

m.  The  war  with  Spain. 

1.  Causes. 

2.  Campaigns. 

3.  Results. 


220    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COUKSE  OF  STUDY. 

n.  The  Panama  Canal. 

o.  The  Insurance  Scandals. 

p.  Railroad  Rate  Legislation. 

'218.  Review  and  Summary. 

1.  Reasons  for  establishment  of   colonies.     Relation* 

of  colonies  to  mother  country. 

2.  How  English  won  the  Continent. 

3.  How  Americans  gained  their  Independence. 

4.  The  Critical  Period  and  Formation  of  Government 

under  the  Constitution. 

5.  Struggle  for  Neutrality. 

6.  Territorial  Growth. 

7.  Slavery  and  the  Civil  War. 

8.  Reconstruction. 

9.  Political  Parties. 

a.  Federal  and  Republican  parties. 

b.  Whigs  and  Democrats, 

c.  Republicans  and  Democrats. 

1.  Principles  of  each. 

2.  What  each  accomplished. 

10.  Great  Inventions  and  the  Industrial   Development 
of  the  United  States. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

210.  A  knowledge  of  the  main  course  of  events  is  essential 
to  an  adequate  conception  of  the  institutions  of  a  country,  and 
the  study  of  history  may  become  the  source  of  the  best  culture 
acquired  in  the  schools.  The  text  should  neither  be  memor- 
ized nor  used  merely  for  reading;  but  when  a  portion  has  been 
assigned  and  studied,  the  pupil  may  fairly  be  held  for  the  sub- 
stance of  the  lesson.  When  a  period  has  been  studied,  the 
teacher  should  summarize  the  important  facts,  and  show  their 
relation  to  other  events  as  causes  or  results. 
Show  the  truth  of  the  first  statement. 


HISTORY.  221 

250.  Encourage  pupils  to  bring  to  the  school  all  the  books 
of  biography  and  history  which  they  can  get,   bearing  upon 
the  topics  treated,  and  to  exchange   with  one  another.     In  no 
other  branch  of  the  course   of  study  is   "uniformity  of  text- 
books" of  less  consequence.     What  is  vital  and  true  is  in  all 
of  them.     The  habit  of  "looking  up"  a  subject  in  all  available 
sources  is  thus  acquired,  and  pupils  learn  how  to  use  books  to 
get  information.     Use  the   books  of  the   school  library  freely. 
To  know  how  people  lived  in  former  times,  and  how  they  con- 
ducted themselves  in  emergencies,  is  more  important  than  the 
details  of  battles  and  campaigns. 

How  can  you  get  pupils  to  use  Township  library  books  in  studying 
history?  In  what  way  does  the  truth  of  the  last  sentence  affect  our 
teaching  of  history? 

251.  Interest  the  children  in  making  a  collection  of  pictures 
of  places  of  historic  interest,  of  famous  buildings  and  of  great 
men.     Watch  the  papers  and  magazines  for  sketches  and  illus- 
trated articles.     If  the  locality  is  one  of  significance,  visit  the 
noted  places  with  the  class.     Create  enthusiasm  and  an  abid- 
ing interest. 

252.  Study  the  geography  of  the  country  as  it  affects  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  nation.     Locate  places  of  his- 
toric importance.     It  will  seldom  happen  that  these  places  will 
be  studied  at  the  same  time  in  the  geography  and  in  the  his- 
tory classes;  one  of  these  studies,  therefore,  will  afford  oppor- 
tunity to  review  the  other. 

253.  Children  are  naturally  partisans.    In  their  estimation, 
one    side   is    always   and  altogether   right,   the   other  wholly 
wrong.     The  study  of  the  history  of  his  own  country  by  a 
person  of  immature  years,  may  cause  this  natural  tendency  to 
develop  into  an  intellectual  habit.     Guard  against  this  result, 
especially  if  the  text  in  use  is  written  in  a  glowing  style.     Cul- 
tivate in  your  pupils  a  spirit  of  judicial  fairness.     Disinterest- 
edness is  one  of  the  cardinal  intellectual  virtues,  and  this  study 
offers  exceptional  opportunities  to  cultivate  it. 

How  can  this  spirit  of  "judicial  fairness"  be  inculcated? 


222         MANUAL,  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Chapter  158  of  the  laws  of  1905  placed  Elements  of  Agricul- 
ture among  the  branches  of  study  to  be  taught  in  public 
schools.  It  must  not  be  presumed  that  any  special  instruction 
must  be  given  to  the  children  unless  by  maturity  and  previous 
preparation  they  are  prepared  to  take  up  regular  class  work 
intelligently.  It  is  expected  that  in  the  country  schools,  pupils 
in  the  upper  form  will  do  regular  class  work,  using  some  ele- 
mentary, text.  There  are  several  such  texts  already  published 
that  will  prove  satisfactory.  In  all  districts  in  which  it  is  ad- 
visable to  organize  classes,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  school  board 
to  meet  and  formally  adopt  a  suitable  book.  The  teacher  may 
be  consulted,  but  care  must  be  exercised  that  the  book  selected 
may  not  be  too  difficult  for  the  school.  In  graded  schools  be- 
low high  schools  and  in  state  graded  schools  the  study  should 
be  pursued  for  the  last  half  of  the  eighth  year.  The  conditions 
under  which  the  school  is  working  should  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration and  classes  organized  when  in  the  judgment  of  the 
board  and  the  teachers,  the  most  efficient  work  may  be  done. 

The  teacher  must  not  take  it  for  granted  from  what  is  said 
here  that  nothing  is  to  be  done  in  this  subject  until  the  pupil  is 
prepared  to  pursue  it  as  a  regular  text  book  or  class  study.  A 
glance  through  these  outlines  must  lead  to  a  far  different  con- 
clusion. Instruction  in  what  is  commonly  designated  Nature 
Study  may  be  given  to  all  grades  through  general  exercises, 
and  in  connection  with  Language  Exercises,  Geography,  and 
possibly  Reading  and  History.  Different  text  books  on  Nature 
Study,  Agriculture  and  Elementary  Botany  should  be  read  and 
studied  by  the  teacher.  In  this  way  only  can  the  teacher  be- 
come the  possessor  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  ready  knowledge 
to  enable  him  to  interest  his  pupils  and  make  the  instruction 
in  Elements  of  Agriculture  effective. 


ELKMEXTS    OF    AGiltCULTURE.  22o 


AGRICULTURE. 


Aims. 

1.  To  instruct  the  pupil  in  some  of  the  foundation  principles 
of  agriculture. 

2.  To  interest  the  pupil  in  farm  work  and  farm  life. 

3.  To  enable  the  pupil  to  read  agricultural  literature  intelli- 
gently. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  to  attempt  to  teach  farming  out  of  a 
book;  but  it  is  expected  that  a  study  of  the  reasons  and  princi- 
ples underlying  agriculture  will  serve  to  create  an  interest  in 
farm  life,  to  prevent  a  dislike  for  agricultural  pursuits,  and  to 
explain  the  meaning  of  farm  processes.  The  study  will  also 
give  general  knowledge  and  culture  by  teaching  some  of  the 
principles  of  the  various  sciences  that  relate  to  farming.  The 
three  aims  noted  above  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  by 
the  teacher  of  the  subject. 

The  Soil. 

254.  Since  all  products  come  directly  or  indirectly  from  the 
soil,  naturally  thu  work  should  begin  with  the  soil.  Work  on 
this  subject  should  be  done  in  the  field,  or  with  the  soils  col- 
lected by  the  pupils  for  this  purpose  in  order  that  the  different 
kinds  may  be  studied  and  their  qualities  learned  by  actual  con- 
tact. Pupils  should  be  able  to  recognize  and  readily  name 
different  kinds  of  soil  and  state  their  different  qualities. 

Teach: 

1.  Kinds  of  soil. 

2.  Qualities  and  constituents  of  each  kind. 


224         MANUAL  OP  THI  ELEMENTABY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

3.  Origin  of  each. 

4.  Uses  of  soil:     (a)  To  fix  plants,  and  (b)  to  supply  plant 

food  and  moisture. 

5.  Adaptation  of  certain  soil  to  certain  plants. 

Pupils  should  be  able  to  answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  What  are  the  principal  kinds  of  soils? 

2.  What  is  the  origin  of  each  kind  of  soil? 

3.  Name  the  qualities  of  each. 

4.  Why  is  one  kind  of  soil  called  heavy? 

5.  Why  is  one  kind  of  soil  called  light? 

6.  What  is  humus?     What  are  its  uses? 

7.  How  may  a  sandy  soil  be  improved? 

8.  How  may  a  clay  soil  be  improved? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  texture  of  the  soil? 

255.     Water  and  the  Soil. 

Teach: 

(a)  The  meaning  of  the  terms  free,  capillary,  and  hygro- 
scopic, as  related  to  water  in  the  soil,  (b)  Chemical 
processes,  (c)  Plant  tissue. 

1.  By  experiments,  the  three  kinds  of  water  free,  capillary, 

hygroscopic,  or  film. 

2.  The  uses  of  water  in  the  soil — 

a.  To  supply  the  plant  with  water. 

b.  To  dissolve  plant  food. 

c.  To  carry  plant  food. 

d.  To  aid  in  chemical  processes. 

e.  To  build  up  plant  tissue. 

3.  The  water  capacity  of  the  different  kinds  of  soil. 

4.  The  amount  of  water  needed  by  plants. 

5.  How  to  conserve  soil  moisture — 

a.  By  draining. 

b.  By  cultivating. 

c.  By  adding  humus. 

6.  The  importance  of  water  to  plant  life. 

7.  The  effect  of  saturation  of  the  surface  soil  upon  plant  life 


ELEMENTS    OF    AGRICULTURE*  225 


a.  Prevents  warming  in  the  spring. 
1).  Hinders  working. 

c.  Causes  washing  and  erosion. 

d.  Prevents  root  penetration. 

e.  Keeps  oxygen  from  entering  the  soil. 

8.  Drainage — how  accomplished,  benefits  of  drainage,  kinds 
of  drainage. 

256.  Tilling  the  Soil. 

Teach: 

1.  The  definition  of  tillage.     Inter-tillage. 

2.  The  different  kinds  of  tillage: 

a.  General. 

b.  Inter-tillage. 

c.  Deep  and  shallow. 

3.  The  purpose — 

a.  To  loosen  the  soil. 

b.  To  conserve  moisture. 

c.  To  pulverize  the  soil. 

d.  To  dry  the  soil. 

e.  To  expose  the  soil  to  atmospheric  action  and  weathor 

conditions. 

f.  To  increase  amount  of  available  piiint  food. 

g.  To  destroy  weeds, 
h.  To  cover  the  seed. 

4.  The  time  for  tillage. 

5.  The  tools  and  methods. 

6.  The  process  of  plowing. 

7.  The  time  of  plowing — spring  and  fall. 

8.  The  advantages  of  each. 

9.  Depth  of  cultivation. 

10.  Danger  of  root  pruning. 


226    MANUAL  OP  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

257.  Soil  Enrichment. 

Teach: 

1.  Properties  and  uses  of  phosphorus,  nitrogen,  potassium, 

calcium. 

2.  The  thirteen  elements  necessary  for  plant  growth. 

3.  That  phosphorus,   nitrogen,  potassium,  and  calcium  are 

the  only  elements  that  the  farmer  needs  to  provide. 

4.  Where  each  of  these  plant  foods  is  found,  as  in  barn  yard 

manure,  ashes,  plowed-under  stubble,  roots  of  stubble, 
in  leguminous  plants,  commercial  fertilizers,  etc. 

5.  That  plant  food  already  in  the  soil  may  be  set  free  by 

chemical  changes  which  are  aided  by  tilling  the  soil  or 
adding  humus. 

0.  Distribution  of  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus  in 

parts  of  the  plant,  and  the  relative  loss  of  these  ele- 
ments by  the  sale  of  grains  and  grasses  from  the  farm. 
If  a  school  garden  is  made,  plant  corn,  or  some  other  crops, 
and  put  well  rotted  manure  in  every  other  hill.     Note  the  dif- 
ferences in  the  growth  of  the  plants.     Numerous  soil  experi- 
ments illustrating  the  effect  of  soil  enrichment  should  be  per- 
formed in  school  by  pupils  and  teachers.     A  bulletin  on  soil 
fertility,  and  one  on  the  soils  of  Wisconsin  will  be  issued  by 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  and  should  be  secured  by 
all  teachers  when  ready  for  distribution. 

258.  The  Plant. 

Teach: 

1.  Definition  of  cell,  root  hairs,  root,  stem,  leaves. 

2.  The  parts  of  the  plant. 

3.  The  uses  of  the  different  parts. 

a.  The  stem — to  support  the  plant  and  convey  the  sap. 

b.  The  root — to  anchor  the  plant  and  convey  sap. 

c.  The  root  hairs  (single  celled)— to  gather  and  absorb 

plant  food  and  water. 

d.  The  leaves  —to  transpire  water  and  absorb  carbonic 

acid  gas  and  serve  as  a  laboratory  where  plant  food 
is  compounded  chemically, 


ELEMENTS    OF    AGRICULTURE. 


227 


e.  The  flowers— to  produce  seed,  and  furnish  food  for 
animals  and  man. 

4.  How  all  these  different  parts  are  adapted  to  their  uses. 

5.  Point  out  relation  between  texture  of  soil  and  plant  root 

system.  Have  pupils  compare  the  root  systems  of 
several  plants — grass,  corn,  etc.,  growing  in  different 
soils  and  under  different  conditions. 

6.  In  what  kind  of  soil  do  they  find  that  the  different  root 

systems  have  their  best  development? 


259.    The  Leguminous  Plants. 

"Define  leguminous,  bacteria,  ferment,  nodules. 

Teach: 

1.  The  more  important  leguminous  plants  and  their  charac- 

teristics. 

2.  Have  the  pupils  bring  plants  to  school   showing  nodules. 

3.  Note,  size,  shape,  location,  etc.,  of  nodules. 

4.  Explain  about  the  nodules  and  the  bacteria  they  contain. 

If  possible  get  some  inoculated  earth  and  plant  some 
beans.  Note  the  vigorous  growth  of  the  nodules  on  the 
roots.  Make  clear  to  the  pupils  that  leguminous  plants 
are  necessary  to  fix  the  nitrogen  from  the  air  in  the 
soil. 

5.  Discuss  these  bacteria  by  comparison  with  others,  such  as 

found  in  yeast,  vinegar,  ferment,  sour  milk  and  cheese 
ferments. 

G.  Tell  how  clover  improves  soil  by  gathering  nitrogen,  and 
that  it  takes  away  phosphorus  and  potassium  from  the 
soil  the  same  as  other  crops. 

7.  Show  the  mechanical  effects  upon  the  soil  of  deep  rooted 
plants.  Read  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  214  on  "Bene- 
ficial Bacteria  for  Legumes."  This  bulletin  is  to  be  had 
free  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


228          MANUAL   OF  THE  KLEME3TTA3Y   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

260.    Plant  Enemies. 

Teach: 

1.  Definition  of  beetle,  larva,   insecticide,  fungicide,   rusts, 

smuts,  etc.,  and  give  the  formulae  for  Bordeaux  mixture 
and  other  fungicides,  also  formulae  for  paris  green  mix- 
ture and  two  or  three  other  insecticides. 

2.  The  two  classes  of  plant  enemies,  animal  and  vegetable. 

3.  Animal  enemies — potato  beetles,  currant  worm,  cabbage 

worm,  plant  lice,  chinch  bug,  etc. 

4.  Two  classes  of  animal  enemies — leaf  chewing,  sap  sucking. 

Give  methods  of  application  of  different  insecticides. 
Send  to  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  for  Bulletin 
No.  112. 

5.  Vegetable  enemies — rusts,  blights,  smuts,  mildews,  etc. 

6.  Teach  ways  of  destroying  with  Bordeaux,  formaldehyde, 

and  other  fungicides.  Collect  cocoons  of  various  insects 
and  keep  them  over  winter  in  a  cool,  medium  dry  place. 
.    Watch  them  develop  in  the  spring. 

Collect  adult  larval  forms  of  these  insects  and  feed  the  larva? 
on  the  leaves  of  the  plant  on  which  found. 

Read  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bul- 
letin No.  Ill,  1905,  on  "The  Prevention  of  Oat  Smut."  This 
bulletin  may  be  procured  from  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Madison,  Wis.  Read  "Potato  Culture,"  Farmers  Bul- 
letin No.  35,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

261.    Rotation  of  Crops. 

On  the  subject  of  rotation  of  crops, 

Teach: 

1.  Definition  of  rotation. 

2.  Reasons  for  rotation: 

a.  Different  crops  take  different  amounts  of  the  several 
plant  foods  from  the  soil. 


ELEMENTS    OF    AGFaCtJLTURft.  229 

b.  Crops    have   different    methods  of  getting  some  of 

their  foods;  for  instance,  clover  takes  its  nitrogen 
from  the  air;  other  plants  get  nitrogen  from  the 
soil. 

c.  Some  plants  feed  deep,  some  shallow. 

d.  Different  crops  require  different  treatment  of  the  soil. 

e.  Different  crops  mature  at  different  times. 

f.  Different  weeds  infest  different  crops. 

g.  Certain  insects  may  be  avoided  by  raising  different 

crops  for  a  few  years. 

Have  the  pupils  bring  in  samples  of  grain  grown  under  dif- 
ferent systems  of  rotation.  Discuss  the  different  plans  of  rota- 
tion followed  by  the  farmers  in  the  neighborhood.  The  different 
crops  used  in  the  several  systems  of  rotation.  The  advantages 
of  each  system. 

262.  Selection  of  Seed. 

Teach: 

1.  The  importance  of  the  selection  of  the  best  seed. 

2.  How  to  choose  the  seed. 

3.  The  care  of  the  seed  during  winter. 

4.  How  to  test  seed. 

5.  Have  the  pupils  bring  in  sample  ears  of  seed  corn.   Com- 

pare: 

a.  The  size  and  the  depth  of  the  kernels. 

b.  The  number  of  rows  of  corn  on  the  ear. 

c.  Relation  of  the  size  of  the  cob  to  amount  of  corn. 

d.  Length  of  the  ear. 

e.  The  degree  to  which  the  tip  of  the  ear  is  filled. 
Have  the  pupils  plant  on  blotters  in  the  school  room,  grains 

of  corn,  wheat,  rye  and  oats  and  determine  the  percentage  of 
vitality  of  each  kind.  The  blotters  must  be  kept  moist.  Dis- 
cuss in  this  connection  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  dif- 
ferent grains  and  the  importance  of  thorough  preparation  be- 
fore planting.  Discuss  the  effects  of  tilling  the  soil  after  plant- 
ing and  before  the  plant  appears  above  the  ground. 


230         MANUAL   OF  THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

263.     The  Farm  Garden. 

If  possible,  every  school  should  have  a  farm  garden.  In 
this  the  children  should  be  taught  to  plant  and  care  for  what- 
ever is  grown  in  the  home  garden. 

Teach: 

1.  The  best  location  for  the  home  garden. 
1.  The  proper  kind  of  soil  needed. 

3.  The  preparation  of  the  soil. 

4.  The  most   desirable   things  to   grow— vegetables,  fruits, 

flowers. 

5.  The  arrangement  of  crops  in  order  that  the  early  matur- 

ing plants  may  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  later  ones. 

6.  The  best  time  to  plant  the  various  crops. 

7.  Best    methods    of  planting,    cultivating   and    caring   for 
small  fruits,  such  as    strawberry,    raspberry,  blackberry, 
gooseberry,  grape,  currant,  etc. 

The  pupil  should  be  able  to  tell  how  to  grow  all  the  common 
vegetables.  Encourage  each  pupil  to  plant  and  care  for  a  gar- 
den of  his  own.  If  practicable,  have  the  pupils  plant  and  care 
for  some  marketable  crop  which  may  be  sold  when  grown, 
and  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  used  for  securing  some  needed 
school  equipment. 

264.    Weeds. 

Define:     Weed,  annual,  biennial,  perennial. 

Teach: 

1.  The  names  and  habits  of  the  different  kinds  of  weeds. 

2.  Their  manner  of  growth  and  propagation.     Their  nature: 

(a)  annual,  (b)  biennial,  (c)  perennial. 

3.  How  each  kind  may  be  exterminated. 

4.  Show  how  knowledge  of  habit,  length  of  natural  life  and 

plan  of  reproduction  determine  the  best  methods  of  kill- 
ing certain  weeds. 


ELEMENTS     OF    AGRICULTURE.  231 

5.  Classify  weeds  into  several  groups,  as, 

a.  Weeds  of  cultivated  fields,  as  found  in  corn  and  po- 

tatoes. 

b.  Weeds  found  in  pastures. 

c.  Weeds  found  in  meadows. 

d.  Weeds  of  the  road-side,  fence  corners  and  neglected 

places. 

e.  Discuss  improved  methods  of  eradicating  each  class. 

Incite  the  pupils  to  destroy  all  the  weeds  in  the  school 
grounds  and  along  the  road-sides.  Interest  them  in  having 
their  home  yards  kept  neat  and  clean.  Have  the  pupils  discuss 
the  methods  used  by  the  farmers  of  the  neighborhood  in  de- 
stroying different  kinds  of  weeds. 

Have  the  pupils  bring  in  and  label  specimens  of  the  more 
common  weeds.  Secure  copies  of  the  pamphlet  on  "Noxious 
Weeds  of  Wisconsin"  from  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Bulletin  No.  76,  and  Circular  No.  27,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

265.  Home  and  School  Garden. 

The  instruction  in  agriculture  should  be  so  given  that  a  dis- 
position to  clean  up  and  beautify  the  home  and  school  grounds 
will  be  created  in  the  children. 

1.  Have  the  pupils  gather  and  burn  leaves,  dead  weeds,  and 

rubbish;  pile  stones,  dig  up  stumps,  and  level  uneven 
places. 

2.  If  necessary  have  the  ground  plowed  and  leveled. 

3.  The  weeds  and  grass  should  be  removed,  and  the  large 

weeds  pulled. 

4.  Prepare  part  or  all  of  the  ground  for  sowing  grass  seed. 

5.  Interest  the  school  board  in  making  all  needed  repairs  on 

school  buildings,  fences  and  grounds. 

6.  Plant  trees  in  the  background  and  along  the  driveway, 

plant  shrubs  near  the  building  and  on  the  borders  of 
the  school  grounds. 


232          MANUAL   OP   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

7.  In  planting,  trees  and  shrubs  must  be  kept  on  the  borders 

and  whore  they  will  hide  the  outhouses  and  any  other 
unsightly  objects.  Clear  open  spaces  must  be  preserved 
for  play  grounds. 

8.  Vines,    such  as  wild   grape,  Virginia  ivy   and  wild  hop, 

may  be  planted  along  fences. 

9.  Always  choose  hardy  shrubs.     Wild  shrubs  that  grow  in 

the  locality  are  often  the  best  to  plant.  Confer  with  the 
patrons  of  the  district  as  to  what  kinds  of  shrubs  grow 
best  in  your  locality.  There  are  always  people  who 
know  about  such  matters,  willing  to  assist  with  advice, 
and  often  with  the  desired  plants.  Do  not  experiment 
with  unknown  shrubs  and  trees. 

10.  If  possible,  obtain  the  services  of  some  experienced  person 
who  knows  how  to  set  out  trees  and  shrubs.  Study  the 
bulletin  on  tree  planting  sent  out  with  the  Arbor  and 
Bird  Day  Annual  for  1905. 

In  the  spring  have  a  small  portion  of  the  school  grounds 
prepared  for  a  school  garden.  Assign  a  portion  of  this  plat  of 
ground  to  each  pupil,  and  instruct  him  in  the  best  method  of 
preparing  the  ground,  and  planting  the  seed.  Have  the  pupils 
do  all  the  work.  The  work  done  in  the  school  garden  may  be 
very  profitably  made  the  topic  for  general  discussion  at  morn- 
ing exercises,  and  also  the  basis  of  composition  work. 

Send  to  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Madison,  Wis.,  for  Bulletin  No.  105;  to  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  Farmers'  Bulletins  134, 
185  and  218, 


JS  ilo     U.b' 


233 


FAT?  31  ANIMALS. 


266.  Care  and  Feeding. 

The  farm  animal  may  be  looked  upon   as  a  machine,  which 
takes  its  food  as   raw  material   and  transforms  it  into  other 
products,  such  as  milk,  wool,  meat,  etc. 
Teach: 

1.  The  different  kinds  and  composition  of  feeds. 

2.  The  amount  of  food  required  by  the  various  animals  for 

maintenance  for  each  thousand  pounds  of  weight. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  a  nutritive  ration?     Balanced  ration? 

4.  The  meaning  and  uses   of   protein,    albumen,    carbohy- 

drates. 

5.  How  to  use  the  feeding  tables. 

6.  How  to  make  a  balanced  ration. 

7.  Find  the  results  obtained  from  feeding  various  feeds  and 

combinations  of  feeds. 

8.  Have  each  pupil  determine  by  the  tables,    the  nutritive 

ratio  of  the  rations  fed  the  animals  on  his  father's  farm- 
The  above  suggestions  are  not  intended  to  be  exhaustive, 
but  to  suggest  some  lines  along  which  the  teacher  and  pupil 
may  profitably  work.  It  is  expected  that  as  the  teacher's 
knowledge  of  and  familiarity  with  this  subject  increases,  he 
will  learn  from  other  sources  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it. 

267.  Type  Forms. 

Knowledge  of  qualities  of  farm  animals  can  be  gained  by  cul- 
tivating the  power  of  observation. 

1.  Call  the  attention  of  pupils  to  pictures  and  written  de- 
scriptions of  the  different  breeds  and  types  of  farm  ani- 
mals. 


L'34         MANUAL   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

2.  Study  carefully  the  correct  type  form,  and  have  the  pupils 

compare  the  animals  found  on  the  nearest  farms  with 
these  pictures  and  descriptions. 

3.  The   pictures   may  be   clipped  from   farm  bulletins  and 

papers.  Mount  them  on  cardboard  and  keep  for  further 
reference. 

4.  Teach  the  characteristics,  types,  and  special  uses  of  each 

breed  of  animals. 

5.  In  this  way  a  study  should  be  made  of  the  different  breeds 

of  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  horses,  and  other  farm  animals. 

268.  Farm  Economics. 

1.  Encourage  the  pupils  to  bring  in  reports  of  the  amount  ot 

butter  and  milk  produced  during  the  year  by  the  differ- 
ent breeds  of  cattle  on  the  several  farms  of  the  neigh- 
borhood. 

2.  Have  the  pupils  investigate  the  total  amount  of  money  re- 

ceived from  the  various  farm  dairy  herds  in  the  local- 
ity, the  cost  of  keeping  the  cows,  and  the  total  net  loss 
or  gain. 

3.  Discuss  the  reasons  for  this  loss  or  gain. 

4.  Make  a  table  showing  the  average  value  per  cow  of  the 

dairy  products  in  the  district. 

If  sheep  raising  is  practiced  in  the  district,  a  study  may  be 
made  of  the  breeds  of  shoep  and  data  collected  relative  to  the 
amount  of  wool  produced  by  individuals  of  the  different  breeds 
in  the  district. 

1.  Age  at  which  sheep  are  most  profitably  killed  for  mutton. 

2.  Amount  of  mutton  produced  by  various  breeds  of  sheep, 

the  cost  of  keeping,  etc.  Best  mutton  breeds.  Best 
wool  breeds. 

3.  The  effects  produced  on  land   by  sheep.      Why  are  they 

considered  especially  profitable  on  hilly  land?  On  wild 
land? 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  235 

4.  Why  are  certain  breeds. called  mutton  sheep?  Wool  sheep? 
etc.  Why  is  not  one  kind  a  perfect  substitute  for  the 
other? 

The  same  course  may  be  observed  in  regard  to  other  farm 
animals,  the  object  of  this  work  being  to  awaken  the  pupils'  in- 
terest in  these  animals,  create  and  form  a  habit  of  observation 
that  shall  lead  to  definite  knowledge  regarding  the  things  with 
which  they  are  in  almost  daily  contact  and  with  which  they 
must  deal  in  active  life,  even  though  they  may  be  engaged  in 
some  pursuit  other  than  agriculture. 


FARM  POULTRY. 


269.  This  is  a  branch  of  agriculture  that  will  appeal  directly 
to  farm  boys  and  girls.  Instruction  in  this  subject  should 
serve  to  impress  upon  every  pupil  the  necessity  of  the  closest 
attention  to  details.  No  other  phase  of  farm  work  demands 
such  prompt  and  exact  attention  at  all  times  and  in  every 
small  particular.  It  is,  however,  a  branch  of  agricultural  in- 
dustry which  the  pupil  may  pursue  in  a  small  way  and  with 
very  little  expense,  and  the  fact  that  it  does  require  the  most 
exact  attention  to  small  things  makes  it  unusually  valuable  in 
forming  habits  of  business  discipline. 
Teach: 

1.  Different  classes  of  chickens — 

a.  Breeds  included  under  each  class. 

b.  The  characteristics  and  habits  of  each  breed. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  moulting? 

a.  The  age  at  which  chickens  of  the  different  breeds 

reach  maturity. 

b.  At  what   time  in   the    year    should   each  breed   of 

chickens  be  hatched  in  order  that  the  pullets  may 
become  winter  layers? 


MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 


3.  The  chemical  constituents  of  an  egg. 

4.  What  elements  must  be  supplied  in  the  food  in  order  to 

stimulate  egg  production? 

a.  In  what  common  farm  foods  may  these  elements 

be  fonnd? 

b.  Preparo  a  satisfactory    winter   ration    for   laying 

hens. 

5.  At  what  age  are  chickens  most  profitable — 

a.  As  layers? 

b.  For  food? 

6.  The  care  of  the  flock  during  the  different  seasons  of  tho 

year. 

7.  The  proper  care  of  the  young  chickens. 

8.  The  more  common  diseases  of  poultry,  and  how  to  pre- 

vent and  cure  them. 

9.  The  several  different  plans  and  styles  of  poultry  houses.    • 

a.  Advantages  of  each. 

b.  Floor  space  required  for  each  chicken. 

c.  Necessity  of  ventilation,  cleanliness  and  light. 

d.  Methods  of  ventilation,  arrangement  of  windows,  etc. 
10.  The  principles  underlying  artificial  incubation. 

The  same  methods  should  be  pursued  in  the  study  of  the  care 
of  turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese.  Where  practical,  urge  the  pupils 
to  induce  their  parents  to  allow  them  to  have  the  care  of  the 
poultry  on  the  farm. 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND  HYGIENE.  237 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


COURSE   OF  STUDY. 

270.  The  object  of  the   study  of  physiology  in  the  public 
schools  of  this    state,  is  to   shape  the   habits  of  the  children. 
Since  new  habits  are  formed  each  year,  the  child  will  miss  the 
restraining  influence  of  that  instruction  needed  to  help  him  to 
resist  the  temptations  peculiar  to  that  particular  period  of  his 
development  if  the  study  is  omitted  or  neglected  for  any  one 
year.     The  study  should  run  through  the  entire  course  instead 
of  being  massed  in  the  advanced  years,  where  it  might  come 
after  the  formation  of  wrong  habits,  and  many  pupils  have  quit 
the  school. 

While  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  laws  of 
health  is  the  object  of  the  study,  such  facts  of  physiology  must 
also  be  taught  as  are  necessary  in  order  to  make  plain  the  rea- 
son for  obeying  hygienic  laws. 

Primary  Form. 

271.  It  is  not  expected  that  in  this  form  the  teacher  will 
hold  daily  recitations  in   this    subject,  but  that   at   least   one 
period  a  week  throughout  the  entire  form  will  be  devoted  to 
this  work.     The  teacher  should  study  a  book  adapted  to  this 
elementary  form  of  instruction  and  aim  to  present  the  matter 
in  a  manner  suited  to  the  age  and  understanding  of  the  pupil. 
The  instruction  in  this  subject  should  be  oral,  and  of  a  nature 
readily  comprehended  by  the  children.     Pupils  should  be  lead 
to  make  such  observations  as   will  help  to  fix  in  their  minds 
the  truths  taught.     The  topics  should  be  presented  in  the  order 


238         MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  OOUBSE  OF   STUDY. 

in  which  they  appear  in  the  manual  and  may  be  made  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  opening  exercises,  or  used  for  the  closing  work 
on  Friday  afternoons. 

272.  1.  The  body  as  a  whole:  Trunk,  limbs,  and  head.  Rela- 
tion of  a  correct  position  to  a  well  formed  body; 
to  good  health. 

(a)  The  bones:  Bones  of  arms,  fingers,  head.     Re- 

lation of  framework  to  shape  of  body.  Care 
of  bones.  Why  sit  and  stand  erect.  Differ- 
ence between  framework  of  the  young  and  old. 
Effects  of  the  use  of  tobacco  and  alcoholic 
drinks  on  growth  of  bone  and  body. 

(b)  The  head:  Parts  of  the  head  and  face.     Care 

necessary.  Desirability  of  attractive  forms 
and  features  and  of  good  personal  appearance. 

(c)  The  arms  and  hands:  Parts  of  the  arm.     Parts 

of  the  hand.     Uses  and  care  of  hand. 

(d)  Legs    and   feet:    Usos   of   the  leg.     Parts   and 

propor  care  of  the  feet. 

2.  Position:  Sitting  and  standing  erect.     Chest  position. 

Drill  in  filing,  marching  and  orderly  self  controlled 
movements. 

3.  Playing:  Need  of  exercise.     Play  of  young  animals. 

Play  necessary  for  children.  Strength  gained  by 
play.  Teaoh  games  and  train  to  be  fair  and  avoid 
anger,  selfishness  and  rudeness. 

4.  Sleeping:  Sleep  needed  by  animals,  children  and  every- 

body. Best  time  for  sleep.  Repair  most  rapid  in 
sleep. 

5.  Wear  and  Repair  of  body.     Need  of  food  for  growth, 

warmth,  strength.  Hunger.  What  children  should 
and  should  not  eat.  Effect  of  eating  too  much. 
Rules  for  eating.  Why  not  between  meals?  What 
constitutes  a  good  breakfast,  dinner.  Table  man- 
ners. Proper  use  of  knives,  forks,  spoons,  napkins, 
etc. 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIEDm  239 

6.  Cleanliness:   Soap,  water  and  individual  towels.    Care 

of  hair,  teeth,  nails,  clothing,  desk.  Use  of 
door-mat,  waste-basket.  Need  of  bathing  often,  el 
clean  hands  and  face,  of  clean  clothing.  Unclean- 
liness  of  tobacco  using.  The  skin  and  cleanliness: 
The  skin  a  garment;  why  it  does  not  wear  out.  The 
pores  of  the  skin.  Care  of  the  skin. 

7.  Pure  air  and  breathing.     How  air  gets   to  the  lungs. 

Why  air  of  rooms  needs  to  be  changed  often.  Im- 
portance of  fresh  air  in  the  bedroom  during  the 
night.  Boys  and  girls  should  be  taught  how  to  air 
their  bedrooms  in  the  morning. 

8.  The  senses: 

(a)  The  eye:     Visible  parts  of  the  eye  and  their  use. 

Sight;  guard  against  close  work  and  poor 
light.  Care  of  the  eyes.  Danger  to  the  eyes 
from  use  of  tobacco  and  strong  drinks. 

(b)  The  ear:     Hearing.     Training  in  quick  and  ac- 

curate hearing:  How  injured.  What  we 
learn  through  hearing.  Distinguish  between 
high  and  low,  soft  and  loud,  agreeable  and 
disagreeable  sounds.  Why  cultivate  pleas- 
ant tones.  Danger  in  screaming,  in  bad  air 
and  tobacco  smoke. 

(c)  The  nose:  What   facts    are   learned    by    smell 

alone.  Other  uses  of  the  nose.  Use  of  hand- 
kerchiefs. Colds  from  breathing  impure  air. 

(d)  The  touch:  Where  the  sense  of  touch  is  located. 

Distinguish    between  objects  that  are  hard 
soft,  rough,  smooth,  etc. 

(e)  The  taste:     Different  flavors  of  foods.     Things 
that  blunt  the  sense  of  taste. 

9.  The  heart:     Its  motion.     The  pulse.     Veins  that  can 

be  seen. 

10.  The  blood:     The  food  carrier.     Blue  and  red  blood. 

11.  The  muscles:     How  the  body  moves.     Location  of  im- 

portant muscles.      Difference  between  muscle  and 


240         MANUAL  OP  THE  ELEMENTARY  COTJUSB  OF  STUDY. 

fat.  Exercise  and  proper  food  strengthen,  alcoholic 
drinks  weaken  muscle. 

12.  The  brain  and  nerves:  Use.     Protection.    Their  need 

of  food.  Alcoholic  drinks  and  tobacco  make  nerves 
act  more  slowly  and  less  accurately. 

13.  Drinking:  Water  and   milk  good  drinks.     Individual 

drinking  cups.  Tea  and  coffee  not  good  for  children. 
The  juice  of  ripe  "fruits  helpfu)  in  the  fruit,  but  not 
after  being  pressed  and  allowed  to  stand.  The 
grape  and  its  use.  Proper  use  of  grapes.  Unwise 
use  of  beer,  wine  and  cider. 

14.  Grain:     Starch  in   grain.     How    changed    to    sugar. 

Sugar  in  sprouted  grain  soaked  out  and  changed  into 
alcohol,  in  beer  making.  Difference  between  grain 
and  alcohol.  Beer  made  from  grain. 

15.  Harmful  drinks:  How  soon  alcohol  may  be  formed  in 

cider.  Danger  that  cider,  beer  and  wins  drinking 
may  create  a  desire  for  stronger  drinks. 

16.  Cigarettes:  Hinder  growth  and  healthy  physical  and 

mental  development.     Contain  nicotine  and  some- 
times other  harmful  poisons.     The  law  forbids  the 
sale  of  cigarettes  in  Wisconsin. 

Middle  Form. 

273.  It  is  expected  in  this  form  that  pupils  will  be  provided 
with  a  suitable  text  book,  and  the  course  of  instruction 
will  extend  throughout  the  entire  form.  It  will  not  be  neces- 
sary for  the  teacher  to  conduct  daily  recitations  in  this  subject, 
but  at  least  one  lesson  a  week  should  be  given  in  the  text  book. 
The  work  of  the  text  should  be  supplemented  by  observation 
and  oral  instruction.  The  outline  prepared  for  this  Form 
should  be  followed  by  the  teacher  in  the  assignment  of  the 
topics  for  study  by  pupils,  and  for  oral  presentation. 

274-.  The  Framework:  A  turtle  compared  with  the  jelly 
fish.  Disadvantages  of  an  outside  framework  for  m.in.  Frame 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE.  241 

\vork  of  animals  as  compared  with  that  of  man.  Why  many 
pieces  in  human  skeleton.  Different  shapes  of  bones.  An- 
imal and  mineral  matter  in  bones.  The  jelly-like  part.  Mar- 
row. Blood  in  bones.  Source  of  hardness  of  bone.  Soft  bones 
of  children.  Location  of  principal  large  bones.  Joints,  hinge, 
ball  and  socket,  and  immovable  joints.  How  held  together. 
Supports  and  protection  furnished  by  principal  bones,  as  ribs, 
skull,  etc.  Effect  of  tight  clothing,  of  ill-fitting  shoes. 

275.  Foods:  Nature's  foods  for  the  young.  Materials  which 
furnish  these.  Proper  choice  of  food.  Effect  of  too  much  moat. 
Milk  and  eggs  the  most  complete  foods.  Need  of  cereal  foods. 
The  part  of  meat  which  makes  musde.  Value  of  cheap  cuts, 
of  meat,  of  vegetables  and  fruit.  Sources  of  common  foods. 
Best  ways  of  preparing  food.  Why  food  should  be  attractively 
served.  Danger  from  impure  ice,  from  drinking  much  very 
cold  water. 

27.0  Body  heat:  Source  of  body  heat.  Oxygen  and  burn- 
ing. Fuel  foods.  Regulation  of  heat  by  skin.  Relation  of 
clothing  to  body  heat.  Effect  of  exercise  on  warmth.  Effects 
of  alcohol. 

277.  Digestion:  Importance  of  good  teeth,  of  chewing  food, 
Waste  of  saliva  in  chewing  gum  and  in  chewing  or  smoking 
tobacco.  The  two  sets  of  teeth.  The  cutting  and  grinding 
teeth.  Bone-making  food  necessary  for  preserving  teeth.  Tooth 
picks  and  tooth  brushes.  Dentist's  care.  Forming  tastes  for 
healthful  foods  in  childhood.  The  epiglottis.  The  soft  palate. 
The  esophagus.  The  stomach.  Gastric  juice.  Work  and  rost 
for  stomach.  Irritating  effect  of  alcohol.  Changes  of  food  in 
stomach.  The  intestines  and  intestinal  juices.  The  villi  of  the 
intestines;  their  blood  vessels  and  other  tubes.  Thelacteals  and 
fatty  food.  Danger  of  giving  alcoholic  drinks  to  infants  and 
young  children,  Passage  of  other  food  into  blood  vessels. 
.Sugar  stored  in  Ihe  liver.  How  food  is  used  by  the  muscles 
:i.iKl  other  organs. 

17— a 


242          MANUAL   OF  THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

278.  Circulation:      The   Heart:      Right   and    left    sides    ol 
heart;  auricles  and  ventricles.     Valves.     Number  of  heals  per 
minute.     Strengthening  the  heart  by  exercise.     Effect  on  the 
heart  of  sudden  fright;  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  tobacco.    Veins 
and  arteries.     How  the  blood  feeds  the  body.     Need  of  good 
food  to  make  good  blood.     The  blood  as  an  air  carrier. 

279.  Respiration:     Air  as  a   purifier.     The    air   passages. 
Air  sacs  of  the  lungs.     Full,  deep  breathing.     The  advantage 
of  well-developed  lungs.     How  air  is  polluted.     Airing  living- 
rooms.     Need  of  air  in  the  blood.     Where   the  blood  comes  in 
contact  with  the  air.     Importance  of  breathing  through  the 
nose.     "Adam's  apple."     Movement  in  swallowing.     Branch- 
ing of  windpipe.     Elasticity  of  lungs.     Change  of  air  in  air- 
sacs;     Why  air  once  breathed   is  unfit  to  be  re-breathed.     De- 
velopment of  the  lungs  by  deep  breathing,  by  "forced  respira- 
tion," by  exercise.     Simple  methods  of  ventilation  in  the  home 
and  school-room.     Why  and  how  dust  should  be  avoided. 

280.  Muscles:      Muscles    composed   of    bundles   of    fibers. 
Fastening  of  muscles  to  bones.     How  they  move  bones.     Sizes 
and  shapes.     Cords.     Tendons.     Tendency  of   beer  to    cause 
the  storing  of  fat  instead  of  the  formation  of  muocle.     Relation 
of  muscle  and  fat  to  strength.     Why  business  men  choose  boys 
who  do  not  use  tobacco.     Power  of  muscles  to  contract  and 
relax.     Use  and  proper  food  nocessary  to  size  and   strength  of 
muscles.     Proper  time  for   exercise.     Beer,   wine,   and   cider 
tend  to  lessen  precision  of  muscles. 

281.  The  Skin:     Work  of  tho  skin.     Oil  and  sweat  glands. 
D.mger  of  cooling  off  too  quickly.     Bathing  as  a  preventive 
of  taking    cold.      Skin    as    protection.       Varying    thickness 
of  outer  layer.      Cause    of    callousness  and    corns.     Skin   as 
an  aid  in  removal  of  waste.     Sweat  glands.     Deposits  left  on 
skin  in  perspiration;  consequent  need  of  bathing.     Use  of  oil 
in  skin.     Alcohol  enlarges  capillaries  of  skin.     Formation  of 
hair  and  nails;  use  and  care.     Why  the  hair  needs  frequent 
washing.     Proper  time  for  bathing.     Importance  of  cleanliness 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIEOm  243 

of  underclothing,   of  bedding.      Need  of   waste  matter   being 
promptly  expelled. 

281  a.  The   kidneys:    shape,  location,    blood    supply;   their 
work;  how  overworked;  how  kept  in  good  order. 

282.  The  Brain  and  Nerves:    Work  of  brain.     How  made 
strong  and  how  rested.     Spinal  cord.     Connection  with  legs, 
arms,  etc.     Alcohol  benumbs  brain  and  nerves.    The  brain  as 
a  receiver  and  director  of  messages.     Cerebellum  and  motion. 
Cerebrum,  the  organ  of  thought.     Relation  of  attention  and 
clear  thinking  to  brain  power.     Importance  of  rest  and  sleep. 
Alcohol   and   tobacco  weaken  power   to  think,  to  recognize 
warnings  of  the  senses,  and  to  take  proper  precautions  against 
danger.     Alcohol  the  cause  of  many  accidents  on  land  and  sea. 

283.  Senses:      Show  that  sense   organs   do  not  see,  hear 
taste,  touch  or  smell,  but  are  only  avenues  to  or  instruments 
of  the  mind.     Continue  training  of  senses. 

284.  Sight:     Pleasure  derived  from  it.      The  eye:   shape; 
bony  socket  and  cushion  of  fat;  muscles;  tear-glands;  lashes; 
lids;  iris.     Danger  in  reading  in  too  strong  a  light  or  by  twi- 
light, when  lying  down,  when  the  eyes  smart.     Avoidance  of 
small  type  and  poor  paper.     Uncleanliness  and  "sore  eyes," 
touching  eyes  with  soiled  fingers.      Danger  from  public  wash 
basins  and  public  towels. 

285.  Hearing:     Outer  parts  of  ears.     Ear  wax  and  care  in 
its  removal.     Danger  from  blows.      Protection  from  draughts 
and  strong  wind,  especially  when  riding.     Effects  from  work- 
ing in  constant  noise.  Avoidance  of  unnecessary  noise  and  dis- 
agreeable tones  in  speaking. 

286.  Smell:     Where  the  sense  is  located.     Nerves  of  smell. 
Dependence  of  animals  upon  smell.     Connection  with  taste. 
HUNV  affected  by  colds.     Use  in  detection  of  foul  air,  gas,  etc. 

2S7.  Taste:     Use.    Papillae  of  tongue.     Nerves  of  taste.   By 
what  affected.     How  dulled. 


244         MANUAL,  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF   STUDY. 

288.  Touch:     Nerves  in  skin.      Where  touch  is  most  deli- 
cate.    Why  delicacy  of  touch  is  desirable. 

289.  The  blood:     Appearance  of  blood  under  microscope. 
Its  three  parts.     Work  of  serum,  red  corpuscles,  white  corpu- 
scles.    Clotting.     Good  blood  necessary  for  strength  of  body 
and  power  of  mind.     Bloodvessels.     Capillaries.     Distribution 
of  food,  and  removal  of  waste.     Meaning  of  circulation.     Rela- 
tion of  good  food,  pure  air,  and  exercise  to  good  blood. 

290.  Alcoholic  drinks,  tobacco  and  other   narcotics:     The 
cause  of  decay.     Work  of  molds  and  alcoholic  ferments.     Fer- 
mentation changes  character  of  substances.     Sugar  a  food;  al- 
cohol a  member  of  a  group  of  poisonous  substances.     Defini- 
tion of  a  poison.     Use  of  yeast  in  breadmaking;  why  there  is  no 
alcohol  in  bread.     Nature  of  a  narcotic.     The  nicotine  in  to- 
bacco a  narcotic;  the  shelfishness  and  expense  of  the  tobacco 
habit.     Danger  that  smoking  may  lead  to  drinking.      Why 
children  should  not  be  given  soothing  syrups.     Proper  choice 
of  drinks.     Water,  why  needed.      How  fruit  juices  are  made 
unhealthful.     Special  danger  in  cider  and  wine.      Self-control 
in  eating  and  drinking.     Power  of  alcohol  to  weaken  self-con- 
trol. 

291.  Exercise:     Good  forms  of  in-door  and  out-door  exer- 
cise; why  the  latter  is  preferable.     Necessity  of  exercise;  how 
secured;  in  games,  work;  proper  time;  adaptation  to  individuals 
and  to  age;  proper  dress. 

Upper  Form. 

292.  A  text  book  adapted  to  the  .Form  in  the  hands  of  the 
pupils.     Experiments  to  be  performed  before  tha  class  by  the 
teacher. 

293.  Plant  Physiology:    Sprouting    and  growth  of  plants; 
necessary  conditions.     Food  stored  in  seed.     Plant  respiration, 
oxidation   and   work.     Parts,    structure,    organs.     The    seed. 
Plant  digestion.     Plant  and  human  physiology 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE.  245 

gans  of  protection   and   digestion.     Cells.     Tissues.     Organs. 
Systems.     Health  of  the  cells. 

294.  General  Structure  and  Processes  of  the  Body:   Varie- 
ties  of  tissues.     Properties   of   cells.     Chemical  composition. 
Protoplasm.     Maintenance  of  life.    Building  material.  Energy: 
sources,  storage,  liberation,  and  use.     Bodily  organs  and  func- 
tions.    Health  and  disease. 

Osseous  system;  general  arrangement.  Upright  position  of 
human  skeleton.  Composition  of  bone.  Structure  of  carti- 
lage. Dislocation.  Fracture.  Gout.  Vertebral  column  the 
axis  of  the  body.  Relative  position  of  axis  in  man  and  ani- 
mals. Correspondence  of  leg  and  arm  bones.  Purpose  of  elas- 
tic cartilage  in  spine.  The  shaft,  cancellous  tissue,  red  and 
yellow  marrow  of  bones. 

295.  Nutrition:    What  it  includes;  composition,   digestion, 
and  assimilation  of  foods.     Definition  of  a  food.     Classes  of 
foods:  nitrogenous  or  albuminous,  starchy,  fat,  and  mineral; 
what  each  supplies  to  the  body;  sources  of  and  experimental 
tests  for  each.     Food  material  in   cereals,  vegetables,  fruits, 
meat,  milk  and  eggs.     Unwholesome  foods:  indigestible  food; 
unripe;  over-ripe,  or  decayed  fruit,  stale  vegetables  and  meats; 
adulterated  foods;  injurious  drinks.     Principles  of  selection  of 
food.     Constituents   of  animal  food.     Need  of  organic  foods. 
Quantity  and  proportion  of  food  substances  in  diet.     Object  of 
digestion.     Mucous  membrane  of  alimentary  tract.     Secretion. 
The  action  of  villi  in  absorption.     Structure  of  liver.     Uses  of 
different  foods.     Special  foods  or  compounds  needed.     Essen- 
tials in  a  diet  list.     Condiments.     Beverages. 

296.  The  Digestive    System:  The  alimentary  canal;  parts, 
structure,  and  processes;  glands,   and  digestive  properties  of 
their  secretions.     Hygiene  of  digestion;  amount  of  food;  as  af- 
fected by  age,  activity,  occupation,  climate,  etc.     Preparation 
of  food:  reasons  for  cooking.     Importance  of   regularity  and 
moderation  in  eating;  of  careful  mastication. 


24:6          MANUAL,   OF  THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUBY. 

297.  Absorption:     Of    fat,   albumen,    sugar.       Storing     of 
sugar,  of  fat.     Use  made  of  proteid  matter.     Definition  of  diges- 
tion, absorption,  assimilation,  oxidation. 

298.  Excretion:     How  waste  materials   are  formed  in  the 
body.     Organs  that  remove  waste:  skin,  lungs,  kidneys,  liver, 
and  large  intestine.     Importance,  size  and  location  of  the  kid- 
neys, connection  with  circulation,  separation  of  waste.     How 
the  liver  removes  waste.     Hygiene  of  liver  and  kidneys.     How 
affected  by  alcoholic  drinks.     The  chemical  compounds  of  body 
wastes;  how  separated  from  the  blood.     Composition  of  per- 
spiration; amount  eliminated  daily.     Necessity  of  accelerating 
removal  of  waste  by  exercise,  baths  drinking  plenty  of  water, 
avoiding  substances  which  irritate   the  kidneys.     Regularity 
of  bowels. 

299.  Circulation:     Valves  of  nerve  supply  of  heart;  differ- 
ences in  structure  of  right  and  left  sides.     Valves   in  veins; 
Inferior  and  superior  vena  cava.      Gains  and   losses   of   the 
blood  in  circulation.    Location  of  arteries.    Wounds.    Methods 
of  checking  bleeding.    The  lymph:  its  circulation;  how  affected 
by  exercise.     Lymph  glands.     Thoracic  duct.     Effect  of  exer- 
cise on  tissue  exchange.     Massage.     Change  in  heart  structure 
caused  by  beer  and  other  alcoholic  drinks.     "Tobacco  heart." 
Muscular  tissue  of  heart;  its  irritability.     Systole  and  diastole. 
Contractions  of  auricles  and  ventricles.     Amount  of  work  done 
by  heart.     Lymphatic  notes.     Vasomotor  nerves.     Danger  of 
strain  and  overwork.     Taking  cold.     Hemorrhage.     Fainting. 
Anaemia.     Germicidal  power  of  blood.     Alcohol  lessens  con- 
tractile power  of  heart,  lessens  ability  to  endure  strain,  weak- 
ens blood  vessels.      Use  of   tobacco  a  hindrance  to  athletic 
success. 

300.  Respiration:     Breathing  organs  of  land  and  water  an- 
imals.    Nasal  passages,  pharynx,  local  cords,  trachea,  bronchi, 
cilia.  Pulmonary  circulation.  Respiratory  movements  of  diaph- 
ragm and  chest  walla.     Lung  capacity;  complemental,  Deserve, 


PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE.  247 

tidal,  and  residual  air.  Chest  and  abdominal  breathing.  Modi- 
fications of  breathing1;  coughing,  yawning,  sneezing,  etc.  Voice: 
how  produced;  training.  Results  ®f  insufficient  oxidation.  Ex- 
perimental determination  of  impurities  of  air.  Causes  contri- 
buting to  disease  of  air  passages  and  lungs;  over-crowded, 
poorly  ventilated  houses,  damp  or  sunless  rooms,  insufficient 
food  and  clothing,  lack  of  outdoor  exercise.  Effect  of  alcoholic 
drinks  in  depressing  vitality  and  causing  proneness  to  lung 
diseases.  Membranes  and  cells  of  lungs.  Mechanism  of  in- 
spiration. Affinity  of  hemoglobin  for  oxygen.  Volume  of  air 
expired.  Damage  done  by  dust,  alcohol,  carbon  dioxide.  As- 
phyxia, drowning.  Artificial  respiration. 

301.  Muscles:       Voluntary,   and    involuntary.       Work    of 
the  muscles   in  generating  heat.     The  stronger  the  muscles, 
the  more  work  and  heat.  Muscular  system  sensitive  to  changes 
in  food.     Alcohol  decreases  muscular  power  and  consequent 
working  ability.     How  this  has  been  proved  by  experience  and 
laboratory  experiments.     Principle  of  levers  in  bodily  motion. 
Muscular  action  in  walking,  running  and  maintaining  the  up- 
right posture.    Structure  of  voluntary  and  involuntary  muscle. 
Training  and  development. 

302.  Sensation:      General  sensation.     Tactile  and  temper- 
ature senses.     Sense  of  position.     Special  senses:  Cornea,  cry- 
stal line  lens,  retina,  aqueous  and  vitreous  humors  of  the  eye; 
iiK'thods  of  resting  eyes  during  close  work;  ear  drum,  bones 
and  canals.     Relation  of  hearing  to  speech;  hearing  affected  by 
growth  in  the  throat.     Effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  in  inspir- 
ing delicacy  and  accuracy  in  sense-perceptions. 

803.  The  nervous  system:  Harmonious  actions  of  organs. 
r>r;iiu  the  central  controlling  organ.  Co-operation  of  nerves, 
spinal  cord  and  ganglia.  The  sympathetic  nervous  system. 
Reflex  action.  Habit.  Narcotics:  alcoholic  drinks,  tobacco, 
opium;  effects  upon  the  nervous  system;  dangers  of  moderate 
use.  Structure  of  nerves:  axis  cylinder,  central  and  outer 


248          MANUAL   OF   THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

sheath.  Ganglion  cells.  White  and  gray  matter,  fissures  ami 
layers  of  the  spinal  cord  and  brain.  Spinal  nerves.  Mem- 
branes and  fluids  of  brain.  Brain  functions.  Building  and 
wasting  of  brain  cells.  Importance  of  an  all-round  develop- 
ment. Harm  done  by  alcohol.  The  alcoholic  habit. 

304.  Beverages:   Water:   forms  found  in  nature;  necessity 
for  water  in  the  body;  kinds:  spring,   well,  rain,   river,  salt, 
mineral,  hard,  soft,  impure;  principal  sources  of  supply:  rain, 
wells,  springs,  rivers,  lakes:  importance  of  pure  water  and  ice 
supplies.      Tea   and   coffee:  sources,   properties.     Nourishing 
drinks:  milk,  chocolate,  cocoa,  and  cereal  drinks;  when  most 
useful.     Non-alcoholic  refreshing  drinks:  lemonade,  orangeade, 
unfermented  fruit  juices,  fruit  syrups.     Alcoholic  drinks:  why 
not  classed  as  foods;  effects  upon  digestion;  comparison  of  fer- 
mented and  distilled  liquors. 

305.  Domestic  Economy:  Apportionment  of  necessary  ex- 
penses on  an  income  of  $500  to  $1,800  per  year.     Food  for  a 
family  of  five  on  $10  per  month.     Dietaries  on  a  basis  of  $25 
anil  $30  per  month  for  food.     Typical  menus  for  each   meal. 
Problems. 


WiUTJJSG.  24(J 


WRITING. 


PURPOSE    OF    WORK. 

306.  The  purpose  of  the  work  in  writing  is  essentially  the 
same  in  all  schools  and  in  all  forms,  namely,  to  acquire  the 
ability  to  write  LEIGIBLY,  NEATLY  and  rapidly. 

To  attain  the  desired  results  there  must  be  a  simultaneous 
development  of  correct  ideas  of  form,  and  of  muscular  skill 
that  the  hand  may  execute  what  the  mind  intends. 

Show  that  the  three  qualities  enumerated  are  given  in  the 
right  order  and  that  they  are  essential  in  this  art 

307.  For  two  reasons  the  work  is  not  outlined  by  forms. 

1.  All  pupils,  young  or  old,  who  have  not  acquired  the  power 
this  outline  aims  to  secure  should  be  given  the  same  course. 

2.  Above  the  Primary  grade,  every  pupil  of  average  intelli- 
gence can  do  in  one  term  of  three  months,  all  that  the  outline 
indicates  except    the    long    continued    practice    absolutely  es- 
sential 

COURSE    OF    STUDY. 

308.  With  the    arm    resting   upon    the   muscle   between  the 
elbow  and  the  wrist,  with  the  fingers  extended,  and  the  palm 
of  the  hand  downward  near  the  desk,  but  with  no  part  of  the 
hand  or  wrist  in  contact  with  the  desk,  move  the  hand  back 
and  forth,  obliquely  and  in  curves,  until  the  arm  rolls  easily 
upon  the  muscle.     Do  not  slide  the  arm  on  the  desk. 

309.  With  the  movement  described  in  294,  exercise  upon  the 
oval,  the  usual  size  of  the  capital  O,  the  hand  passing  through 
the  oircumjference  at  the  rate  of  150  to  200  times  a  minute. 


250          MANUAL   OF   THE  E-LEMBNTABY   COUB.SE   OF   STUDY. 

This  should  be  practiced  from  right  to  left  and  from  left  to 
right,  until  perfect  freedom  of  movement  is  secured,  the  hand 
moving  around  many  times  in  the  same  circuit. 

310.  With  the  same  movement  practice  upon  the  capital  O, 
made  with  three  quick  strokes  (down,  up,  down  )  at  the  rate  of 
GO  to  80  a  minute. 

311.  At  the  same  rate,  keeping  up  the  fore-arm  movement 
and  avoiding  all  use  of  the  fingers  except  to  hold  the  pen,  make 
the  simplest  form  of  the  capital  P.     Afterward  capital  B,  and 
then  the  easy  capitals, 

312.  Practice  upon  the  small  letter  n,  in  the  same  manner  as 
directed  in  case  of  the  capitals.     Follow  with  other  small  let- 
ters, the  easier  ones  first,  as  m,  i,  u,  combining  them  as  soon  as 
possible  into  simple  words. 

313.  Follow  the  small  letters  with  1,  then  h,  j,  g,  and  the 
other  extended  letters. 

314.  With  proper  movement  and  high  speed,  practice  special 
exercises  a  few  minutes  daily  until  perfect  freedom  of  mover 
ment  is  secured  and  correct  form  attained. 

315.  Practice  upon  easy  words  beginning  with,  capitals,  then 
with  versos  of  poetry,  mottoes,  etc.,  care  being  taken  to  so  grade 
the  work  that  not  many  difficulties  will  be  presented  in  any  one 

lesson. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO   TE1ACHEES. 

316.  The  four  things  to  be  considered  in  every  exercise  in 
writing  are  position,  form,  movement,  speed.     A  good  position 
enables  the  pupil  to  use  the  muscles  easily.     To  seen  IT  this  lie 
should  sit  erect,  near  the  desk,  but  without  leaning  upon    it, 
face  it  directly  when  convenient,  otherwise  turn  the  right  side 
slightly  towards  it,  rest  the  fore-arm  upon  it>  and  set  the  feet 
squarely  upon  the  floor. 


WBITTWO.  251 

Why  give  attention  to  position?     Form?    Movement?     Speed? 

317.  The  idea  of  good  form  is  developed  by  inspection  of 
good  writing  done  by  the  teacher   and  from  examination   of 
charts   and   engraved   letters.     Some   analyses   of   letters   will 
prove  helpful,  but  a  careful  inspection  of  letters  in  their  en- 
tirety will  be  more  valuable.     It  should  be  remembered  that 
one's  ideas  of  form  are  usually  far  in  advance  of  his  ability  to 
execute. 

What  Is  the  value  of  copy  books? 

318.  A  good  movement  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  as  one 
acquires  through  it  the  ability  to  write  rapidly  for  hours  with 
little  fatigue.     The  best  movement  for  all  school  purposes  is 
fully  explained  in  293.     The  pen  should  be  held  lightly  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  first  and  second  fingers.  The  finger  move- 
ment makes  the  writing  cramped.     The  whole  arm  movement 
may  be  used  only  in  exercise  for  practice  to  secure  freedom  and 
skill  in  execution, 

319.  Speed  is  exceedingly  desirable.     The  writer  who  can 
turn  off  a  large  amount  of  correspondence  in  a  given  time  is  the 
one  whose  sendees  are  in  demand.     Many  persons  look  upon 
writing  as  a  drudgery,  because  emphasis  has  been  laid  upon 
form  at  the  expense  of  legibility  and  rapidity.     It  is  a  misdi- 
rected effort  to  spend  upon  six  lines  in  a  copybook,  time  enough 
to  write  well  two  pages  of  legal  cap. 

320.  In  the  primary  grades,   paper   and  long,   medium-soft 
lead  pencils  should  be  used  until  the  movement  is  thoroughly 
acquired. 

The  pupils  should  be  taught  how  to  keep  their  pencils  and 
pens  in  order.  They  should  be  required  to  get  blotters,  pen 
wipers,  and  clean,  .smooth  paper,  and  to  use  for  practice  pur- 
poses, plenty  of  foolscap  or  Idler  paper  of  good  quality. 

Require  neatness,  but  do  not  allow  the  pupils  to  draw  the 
letters  to  secure  that  result.  Show  that  legibility  depends  upon 
correct  forms  of  letters,  uniformity  in  height,  slant,  spacing. 


252    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

Teach  pupils  to  practice  self-criticism  by  comparison  of  their 
own  work  with  the  standard. 

During  the  writing  exercise  the  teacher  must  give  his  whole 
attention  to  it,  and  should  make  it  pleasant  to  the  pupils.  Gen- 
eral directions  may  be  given  to  the  class,  but  much  of  the  teach- 
er's help  must  be  given  to  the  pupils  as  individuals. 

321.  Writing  of  business  forms,  such  as  notes,  checks,  drafts, 
receipts  and  bills,  will  furnish  agreeable  variety  and  suitable 
matter  for  the  practice  work  of  middle  and  upper  forin  pupils. 
Proper  forms  of  business  and  social  correspondence  may  also 
be  taught. 

322.  Teachers  should  write  well,  but  whether  they  write  well 
or  not,  should  use  the  board  in  teaching  writing. 

Show  the  importance  of  this  suggestion. 

323.  The  test  of  a  good  writer  is  the  ability  to  produce  read- 
able manuscript  readily. 

324.  As  writing    consists  in    producing    certain    forms  con- 
ceived by  the  mind,  it  follows  that  putting  letters  into  rectangu- 
lar spaces,  tracing  what  others  have  written,  running  the  pen- 
cil in  grooves  and  kindred  devices  are  of  little  use  in  teaching 
writing. 

THE   TEST   FOR   GRADUATION. 

325.  The  ability  to  write  legibly,  neatly  and  in  good  form, 
within   three   minutes,   two   stanzas   from   Longfellow's   poem, 
"A  Psalm  of  Life,"  or  an  equivalent  selection  not  previously 
written. 


DRAWING SIEGING.  253 


DRAWING-SINGING, 


326.  The  branches  in  which  a  course  of  study  has  been  out- 
lined, are  those  which  are  required  by  law  to  be  taught  in  all 
common  schools.      The  district  board  may  authorize  or  require 
others  to  be  taught.     Among  these,  frequently,  with  the  advice 
of  the  teacher,  will  be  found  drawing,  vocal  music,  and  nature 
lessons. 

327.  It    is    no  discrimination    against    any    branch  that  no 
formal  course  is  outlined.     Where  teachers   are  prepared   to 
give  instruction  in  drawing  and  singing  they  are  usually  com- 
petent to  arrange  for  themselves  a  satisfactory  course.    Draw- 
ing trains  the  eye  and  the  hand  and  gives  the  power  to  express 
ideas  graphically,  greatly  quickens  and  strengthens  intellectual 
activity  and  comprehension  in  all  branches  of  study,  and  lays 
the  foundation  for  subsequent  manual  and  technical  skill   in 
many  industrial   pursuits.      That  school   is  exceptionally   for- 
tunate whose  teacher  is  alive  to  the  value  of  drawing  and  skill- 
ful in  giving  instruction  in   it.     The  attempt  of  children  to 
represent  fairly  what  they  see  will  lead  them  to  see  much  more 
accurately.     This  is  perhaps  the  best  result  of  teaching  draw- 
ing in  schools.     At  the  same  time  it  turns  the  natural  activity 
of  children  into  profitable  channels. 

In  what  school  subjects  and  for  what  purposes  may  drawing  be  used 
advantageously  ? 

328.  The  training  in  attention,  in  the  use  of  clear,  distinct 
and  musical  tones,  the  subjection  of  the  vocal  organs  to  the 
will2  the  habit  and  the  power  of  concerted  action,  as  well  as  the 
opportunity   for   cultivating   humane,   patriotic   and   fraternal 


254    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

sentiments,  are  features  of  education  of  great  value,  naturally 
]irmiiol<Ml  by  (-.arcl'ii II y  in-ranged  exorcises  in  vocal  music  and 
by  persistent  and  judicious  practice  of  them. 

How  can  clear,  musical  tones  be  obtained?  Is  the  training  given  in 
this  subject  of  value  in  other  branches?  Show  how. 

329.  As  a  rule  children  like  to  sing,  and  their  disposition  to 
do  so  should  bo  so  guided  that  good  and  not  evil  will  result. 
It  is  very  desirable  that  children  should  b©  taught  to  sing  by 
nvt>te  or  by  rote,  the  simpler  familiar  patriotic  songs.  Collec- 
tions of  suitable  secular  songs  are  common.  Music  shoaild 
commend  itself  to  all  teachers  for  opening  and  closing  exercises, 
on  account  of  its  power  as  a  moral  agent,  as  a  balm  for  wounded 
spirits  and  as  an  inspiration  to  the  highest  endeavor. 


SPELLING.  255 


SPELLING. 

I. — Primary  Form. 

330.  The  first  steps  are  in  connection  with  reading.      Oral 
spelling  with  the  word  in  sight,  and  copying  words  on  slates 
from  blackboard,  chart  and  reader.     After  the  first  year  oral 
and  written  spelling  of  words  dictated  from  the  reader. 

Why  spell  at  first  with  the  word  in  sight? 

331.  Frequent  oral  and  written  review's  of  the  more  import- 
ant and  difficult  words  learned. 

What  is  the  value  of  oral  spelling?     Of  written? 

332.  The  pupils  should  be  able  to  spell,  both  orally  and  in 
writing,  all  the  words  of  the  Second  Reader.     In  order  that 
common  words  may  not  be  neglected,  the  pupils  should  occa- 
sionally be  required  to  write  sentences  dictated  from  the  reader 
ni id  from  books  of  like  grade. 

What  is  the  value  of  a  dictation  exercise?    What  points  should  it 
test? 

II. — Middle  Form. 

333.  Pupils  should  be  drilled  in  the  oral  and  written  spell- 
ing of  the  words  found  in  the  Third  Reader,  and  in  all  other 
text  books  used  by  the  pupil.     Use  a  spelling-book  and  follow 
the   methods    therein    outlined.      Spell    the    new    words    used 
in  all  other  recitations.     Make  much  use  of  dictation  exercises, 
and  exercises  with  lists  of  words  of  different  kinds ; — as,  verbs 
derived    from   'nouns;    terms    used    in    arithmetic    or    other 
brandies;  synonyms,   abbreviations.   Careful  training  now  will 

the  pupil  a  good  sj>eller.     It  will  be  so  much  more  difft- 


256    MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

cult  to  do  it  later,  that  in  all  probability  it  will  never  be  well 
done.  Difficult  words  must  bo  brought  up  again  and  again, 
until  the  pupil  forms  the  JiabU  of  spelling  them  correctly  when- 
ever he  uses  them  in  compositions  or  written  examinations. 

Make  lists  of  the  words  frequently  missed  and  drill  fre- 
quently on  those  words. 

Why  use  a  spelling  book?  Why  spell  the  new  words  used  in  other 
recitations?  How  will  you  prepare  the  lists  mentioned  in  the  last  sen- 
tence? How  should  this  drill  be  conducted? 

334.  Whenever  the  pupil  spells,  look  closely  to  his  writing; 
whenever  he  writes,  insist  on  good  spelling. 

Show  the  importance  of  these  suggestions. 

335.  In  oral  spelling  the  child  should  be  required  to  syllabi- 
cate and  pronounce  the  words  for  the  aid  it  gives  to  reading 
and  pronunciation.     In  spite  of  all  the  defects  of  our  alphabet, 
pronunciation   and   spelling   are   mutually   helpful.      The    old- 
fashioned  way  of  mastering  a  word  syllable  by  syllable  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  one  of  the  lost  arts. 

336.  Habitual  good  spelling  in   everything  written  by  the 
pupil,  especially  in  examinations,  where  his  mind  is  centered 
more  upon  the  thought  than  upon  the  spelling  of  the  word  he 
is  using,  should  be  insisted  upon. 

III. — Upper  Form. 

COURSE    OF   STUDY. 

337.  Continue  the  practice  of  spelling  the  words  met  in  all 
textbooks,   and  in  supplementary  reading.     The  best   time   to 
learn  to  spell  a  word  is  when  we  first  meet  it     We  .thus  form 
a  habit  of  noting  new  words  carefully. 

What  is  the  value  of  the  habit  mentioned  in  the  last  sentence? 

338.  Master  the  spelling  book,  including  two  or  three  rule* 
of  spelling,  as  the  following: 


257 

1.  Monosyllables    arid    words   accented   on    the   last .  syllable 
ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel  double 
the  consonant  on  taking  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

2.  Final  silent  e  is  omitted  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a 
vowel  except  when  necessary  to  retain  the  soft  sound  of  c  or  g. 

Of  what  value  are  rules  in  spelling? 

339.  Review  lists  of  words  mis-spelled. 

340.  Whatever  form  these  exercises  take  require  the  pupils 
to   pronounce   the   words.     Correct   pronunciation   is    of   even 
greater  value  and  importance  than  is  good  spelling.     Why  ? 

TESTS  FOR   GRADUATION. 

341.  The  pupil  should  spell  correctly  through  force  of  habit, 
whatever  he  writes.     Ho  should  have  the  habit  of  consulting 
the  dictionary  in  all  doubtful  cases.     He  may  fairly  be  tested 
by  his  spelling  in  examination  papers,  by  a  list  of  words,  not 
less  than  fifty  in  number  promiscuously  arranged,  and  by  his 
ability  to  apply  the  principal  rules  of  spelling. 


18— C. 


258       MANUAL  OF  TJII-:  i-: i. KMJ:. \TAiiv  CGUHSE.  OF  STUDI. 


CARE  AND  USE  OF  THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY. 


342.  The  value  of  the  school  library  depends  largely  upon 
the  teacher,  who  should  have  charge  of  it  during  term  time. 
It  should  be  kept  in  a  secure  case,  and  should  be  easy  of  access. 
The  books  should  be  so  grouped  that  those  bearing  on  related 
subjects  should  stand  together. 

CAEE   OF    BOOKS. 

343.  Pupils  should  be  carefully  trained  to  keep  books  clean 
and   whole.      In    this   training   the   teacher's   example   is  most 
effective,    but   it   should   be   supplemented   by   kindly  counsel. 

This  care  develops  greater  respect  for  books,  more  regard  for 
public  property,  habits  of  cleanliness,  order,  thoaightfulnesa 
and  self-control.  It  gains  for  the  teacher  and  pupils  the  pleas-' 
ure  of  handling  cleaner  and  more  attractive  volumes,  and  thus 
adds  to  the  interest  in  the  library.  The  books  last  longer,  but 
the  saving  of  money  is  the  least  important  object  to  be  gained. 

344.  Pupils  should  handle  the  books  only  when  their  hands 
are  clean  and  dry.     They  should  not  be  allowed  to  leave  them 
on  dusty  or  damp  desks  or  shelves,  in  the  sunlight  or  too  near 
stoves,  as  the  light  fades  and  the  heat  warps  the  covers.     They 
should  not  turn  down  the  corners  of  the  leaves  nor  mark  the 
pages  or  covers.     They  should  not  be  permitted  to  lay  open 
books    downward    nor    wet  their    fingers    to    turn    the  leaves. 
Neither  should  they  be  permitted  to  strap  them  up  tightly  and 
above  all  they  should  be  taught  to  guard  against  letting  them 
fall.     These  cautions  apply  with  three-fold  force  to  the  teacher. 

345.  Books  to  be  taken  to  the  pupil's  home  should  be  care- 
fully  wrapped    and    guarded   in   inclement   wreather.     Do   not 


CARE  AND  USE  OF  THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY.  259 

make  the  child  timid  about  using  books,  but  teach  him  how  to 
handle  them  properly. 

USE  OF  BOOKS. 

346.  The  vital  thing2  however,  is  to  lead  the  children  to  love 
good  books.     To  secure  this  result  the  teacher  must  know  the 
books  thoroughly  and  enjoy  using  them.     He  must  be  quick 
to  turn  to  the  library  for  apt  information,  illustration  or  in- 
spiration.    He   must  feel   so  keenly  the  pleasure   of  gaining 
new  thoughts  and  new  power  from  books  that  he  will  not  rest 
satisfied  until  he  has  brought  the  boys  and  girls  under  the  same 
spell.     Heal  enthusiasm  in  a  good  work  is  contagious. 

Primary  Form. 

347.  Among  un'trained  pupils  the  younger  are  generally  the 
readiest  to  feel  the  charm  of  books.      The  books  should  be  read 
to,  and  sometimes  by,  the  pupils  of  the  Primary  Form  to  so- 
cure  the  following  results : 

1.  To  enlarge  the  vocabulary. 

2.  To  quicken  the  imagination. 

3.  To  give  the  first  knowledge  of  many  tilings  outside  the 

immediate  surroundings. 

4.  To  give  practice  in  reading. 

5.  To  stimulate  the  powers  of  observation. 

C.   To  form  a  basis  for  oral  language  lessons. 

7.  To  give  early  familiarity  with  good  literature. 

8.  To  give  pleasure. 

348.  Most  of  the  few  books  suited  to  the  needs  of  pupils  in 
this  form  must  first  be  read  to  them  by  the  teacher.     Fortun- 
ately these  small  volumes  contain  the  choicest  of  the  famous 
old  fables  and  folk  stories,  and  a  number  of  charming  descrip- 
tions of  child  life  and  of  the  animal  world. 

Middle  Form. 

349-  In  this  form  the  books  should  be  used : 
1.   To  supplement  and   add   interest  to  the  regular  reading 
lessons. 


260          MANUAL   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COURSE    OF    STUDY. 

2.  To  broaden    the    study    of   geography  and    give  a  wider 

knowledge  of  peoples,  their  customs,  habits,  peculiari- 
ties and  relations  to  other  peoples,  and  of  the  countless 
facts  that  alone  give  life  and  value  to  the  lines,  colors 
and  spots  that  constitute  maps, 

3.  To  teach  spelling,  by  observation,  and  furnish  new  les- 

sons. 

4.  To  teach  language,  by  giving  object  lessons  in  the  use  of 

words  and  sentences  by  good  writers,  and  to  provide 
excellent  examples  for  oral  and  written  reproduction. 

5.  To  incite  a  love  for  the  study  of  history. 

6.  To  furnish  high  ideals  of  life  by  interesting  pupils  in  the 

biographies  of  great  and  noble  men. 

7.  To  familiarize  pupils  with  specimens  of  good  literature. 

Upper  Form. 

350.  In  this  form  the  principal  benefits  to  be  gained  are  as 
follows : 

1.  To  extend  the  knowledge  of  all  branches  studied  and  to 

give  greater  interest. 

2.  To  give  pupils  new  lines  of  thought 

3.  To  store  the  minds  with  inspiring  passages  from  great 

authors. 

4.  To  afford  opportunity  to  pupils  to  acquire  information 

on  any  special  subject 

5.  To  teach  pupils  to  use  books  so  as  to  get  out  of  them  in- 

formation on  desired  subjects. 
G.   To  give  wider  and  larger  views  of  life. 

7.  To  lead  to  the  formation  of  better  ideals. 

8.  To  impart  the  power  of  discriminating  between  good  and 

poor  books. 

9.  To  awaken  a  taste  for  what  is  best  in  books. 
10.   To  lead  pupils  to  acquire  the  reading  habit 

351.  The  results  of  a  few  years'  training  with  a  small  li- 
brary should  be:  a  love  for  good  books,  ease  in  understanding 


CARE  AND  USE  OF  TTIK  SCHOOL  LifiRA&t.  261 


their  meaning,  familiarity  with  allusions,  facts  and  references 
that  are  common  in  good  literature,  and  a  good  knowledge  of 
a  few  of  the  literary  masterpieces  which  are  essential  to  a  fair 
education. 

352.  A  bright  selection,  or  a  chapter  from  a  continuous  story, 
if  read  at  the  opening  of  school  will  aid  in  securing  promtpt 
attendance.     Beautiful   passages,   if   read   appreciatively,   will 
often  enliven  the  school  when  it  has  grown  dull,  or  quiet  it 
when  restless.     The  reading  of  an  extract  from  an  entertain- 
ing book  will  often  incite  children  to  read  the  remainder. 

353.  For  the  special  purposes  for  which  each  book  is  most 
valuable,  read  the  notes  under  the  titles  of  the  books  recom- 
mended by  the  state  superintendent  in  his  list  of  books  for 
township  libraries. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

354.  As  the  library  grows,  put  more  stress  upon  the  home 
reading  of  the  books.      An   entertaining  book  will   frequently 
catch  the  attention  of  the  parents  and  will  sometimes  be  read 
aloud  with  the  whole  family  as  an  audience.      This  makes  the 
relation  between    the  school    and   the    home  more    close,   and 
should  be  encouraged  by  the  teacher. 

Talk  over  the  merits  and  beauties  of  the  books  with  the  pu- 
pils before  and  after  they  read  them. 

If  possible,  lead  the  pupils  to  recognize  fine  and  noble  traits 
in  the  characters  read  about  whether  real  or  fictitious. 

Draw  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to  the  most  attractive  pages, 
illustrations  and  bindings,  and  teach  them  to  see  the  beauties 
of  the  printer's  part  of  the  work  of  book-making. 


262       MAjsrtJAi,  OF  THE  ELEMENTAL  COTJBSB  OF  STUDY. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF    PUPILS  UNDER   THE 
COURSE  OF  STUDY. 


355.  Arranging  the  pupils  of  a  district  school  into  classes, 
and  allotting  to  each  class  the  particular  study  which  it  must 
pursue,  usually  devolves  upon  the  teacher.      On  this  subject  he 
may  receive  advice  from  the  district  board,   and  suggestions 
from  the  county  superintendent;  but  very  properly  he  is  re- 
quired to  bear  the  responsibility.     He  can  aid  very  materially 
the  effort  to  introduce  into  the  common  schools  the  course  of 
study  herein  advocated ;  for  its  success  greatly  depends  upon 
the  correct  and  efficient  classification  of  the  pupils.     The  fol- 
lowing suggestions  will  prove  helpful : 

356.  He  should  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  general  plan 
of  the  Course  of  Study,  the  ideas  upon  which  its  three-fold  di- 
vision  is  based,    the  branches  of  study  arranged   under  each, 
form,  the  order  of  the  subjects  belonging  to  each  branch,  and 
the  suggestions  offered  for  pursuing  and  teaching  these   sub- 
jects. 

357.  When  he    knows    the    advancement    of    the    classes  he 
should  determine  their  relation  to  the  studies  of  this  course. 

358.  In  some  schools  there  exist  already  the  fundamental  re- 
quircments  for  easy  classification.     With  such  conditions  the 
teacher  will  consider  one  group  of  classes  as  belonging  to  the 
Primary  Form,  as  they  are  pursuing  exclusively  the  subjects 
of  that  form ;  another  to  the  Middle,  and  the  third  to  the  Upper 
Form  for  the  same  reason.     In  many  schools,  especially  those 
taught  during  the  spring  and  summer,  no  advanced  pupils  will 
be  enrolled.     The  children  present  can  then  be  quite  easily  ar- 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    PUPILS.  263 

ranged  under    tLo    first    two    forms.     This    should    be    done 
promptly,  and  the  classes  treated  as  progressing  in  the  course. 

359.  In  other  schools  there  r.ro  far  too  many  classes.     Here 
little  difficulty  will  be  encountered  in   arranging  the  smaller 
children  under  the  Primary  Form.      The  teacher  will  have  to 
see  that  all  those  who  are  reciting  in  the  Primer  and  the  First 
and  Second  Headers  are  also  giving  attention  to  the  other  sub- 
jects under  that  form.      On  their  completion  of  these  subjects 
he  will   arrange   for  their  examination   for  promotion  to  the 
Middle  Form.     He  should  here  establish  a  rule  that  a  pupil 
who  has  not  in  some  degree  mastered  the  topics  associated  with 
those  Readers,  shall  not,   at  the  examination,  be  advanced  to 
the  next  form. 

360.  By  a  similar  procedure,  though  with  more  difficulty,  he 
will  be  able  to  classify  the  pupils  under  the  Middle  Form.     lie 
can  take  the  summary  of  the  studies  under  the  Middle  Form 
and  establish  the  closing  limit  for  all   the  work  accomplished 
therein.      He  can  arrange  for  all  pupils  whose  attainments  are 
below  this  limit  to  study  during  the  term  with  a  view  to  reach- 
ing it.      These  who  have  finished  a.ll  the  work  named,  he  can 
bring  at  the  proper  time  into  the  examination  for  promotion 
into  the  Upper  Form.      In  judging  of  the  advancement  of  the 
pupils  he  must  a.llow  for  the  study  which  has  in  many  cases 
been  carried  on  at  home,  as  well  as  that  which  has  been  per- 
formed under  his  own  eye  in  the  school  room.      In  fact,  it  ia 
believed  that  this  system  of  a  course  of  study  for  the  common 
schools  will  induce  many  children  to  p<ursue  by  themselves  the 
common  branches,   particularly  those   in  which   they   are  defi- 
cient.    The  principal  requisite  to  promotion  must  be  the  abil- 
ity of  the  student  to  pass  the  required  tests. 

361.  The  teacher  will  often  nfid  the  older  children  well  ad- 
vanced in  some  studies,  and  very  deficient  in  others.  In  those 
studies  in  which  they  are  deficient  they  should  be  induced, 
even  at  the  loss  of  some  pride,  to  bring  forward  their  standing 
as  speedily  as  possible.  They  should  be  shown  the  great  mis- 


264          MANUAL   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY    COUEST3    OP    STUDY. 

take  which  they  are  committing  in  acquiring  a  partial  and  one- 
sided education.  Before  all  the  members  of  this  Form  can  be 
placed  the  potent  incentives  to  prepare  for  the  final  examina- 
tions in  the  Course,  and  for  graduation  which  results  from  a 
successful  trial  on  that  occasion..  These  the  teacher  should 
present  with  all  the  skill  and  vigor  which  he  can  command. 

362.  He  should  not  be  discouraged  if  he  does  not  for  weeks 
find  it  possible  to  organize  the  older  pupils  under  the  regula- 
tions of  the  Upper  Form.     He  should  remember  that  he  is  en- 
deavoring to  introduce  a  new  measure  into  the  school  and  that 

O 

success  in  such  an  effort  always  requires  a  considerable  -period 
for  reflection  and  change  of  feeling.  His  work  in  this  case  is 
greatly  increased  by  the  fixed  habits  of  the  boys  and  girls  over 
twelve  years  of  age  who  have  been  trained  in  classes  where 
there  was  no  regular  system  to  guide  them,,  and  who  have  not 
yet  acquired  sufficient  independence  and  strength  of  mind  to 
comprehend  and  accept  the  new  arrangements.  Besides,  the 
conservatism  of  the  district  may  sustain  the  views  and  conduct 
of  these  pupils.  There  may  be  a  lack  of  suitable  books;  the 
attendance  of  these  advanced  children  may  be  irregular;  their 
education  may  be  very  unequal,  and  they  may  have  no  genuine 
enthusiasm  for  study.  He  should  set  himself  resolutely  to 
overcome  all  these  for  the  benefit  of  his  pupils.  He  must  labor 
until  he  succeeds;  by  means  of  visits  with  the  patrons,  by  per- 
sonal influence  with  the  district  board,  by  reasoning  with  the 
older  children,  and,  more  than  all  else,  by  interesting  pupils  in 
the  study  of  the  various  branches  included  in  this  Form.  The 
p-articular  measures  to  be  employed  in  this  endeavor  he  must 
discover  while  on  the  field. 

363.  He  should  strive  to  awaken  the  interest  of  the  pupils 
and  their  parents    in  the  school  and  in  the  introduction  of  the 
Course  of  Study.     He  may  begin  the  use  of  some  methods  pre- 
sented in  it  for  the  common  branches.     He  may  speak  of  the 
advancement  of  other  schools  which  are  trying  it,   and  whose 
most  forward  pupils  will  be  examined  during  the  year  for  grad- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  PUPILS.  265 

nation.  He  may  explain  the  advantages  of  completing  all  the 
studies  in  the  school,  and  receiving  the  diploma  awarded  a.t  its 
close,  and  may  assure  them  that  elsewhere  such  exertions  have 
been  eminently  succssfuL  It  will  ho  an  ini]>ortant  point  gained 
if  he  induces  one  pupil  in  his  school  to  commence  the  effort  to 
finish  in  the  Upper  Form  the  studies  of  the  Course,  and  to 
present  himself  for  the  closing  examination.  This  pupil  is  very 
likely  to  become  the  nucleus  around  which  his  associates  will 
be  collected  and  in  this  way  the  desired  classification  will  be 
established. 

364.  The  teacher  should  try  to  exclude  text-books  not  belong- 
ing to  the  scries  adopted  for  the  school.     This  is  necessary  to 
limit  the  daily  recitations  or  exercises  to  the  least  practicable 
number  and  to  arouse  more  interest  in  those  which  are  estab- 
lished.    If  pupils  have  different  texts  in  arithmetic,  geography, 
history  and  constitutions,  different  classes  must  not  be  organ- 
ized to  accommodate  them.     The  essential  facts  are  the  same 
in  all. 

365.  The  occasions  are  quite  rare  in  which  it  would  be  proper 
t<>  add  the  higher  branches  to  the  already  overburdened  pro- 
grain  of  the  ungraded  schools.     The  teacher  may  also  induce 
the  school  board  to  adopt  uniform  text-books,   as  the  law  re- 
quires  them  to  do.     lie  will  sometimes  have  to  secure  from  the 
board  books  for  children  whose  parents  are  unable  to  provide 
them. 


2C6          MANUAL   OF   TILE   KLJLALENTAE.Y    COURSE    OF    STUDY. 


PROGRAM   OF   DAILY   EXERCISES. 


366.  A  pro-gram  of  recitations  and  study  periods  should  be 
posted  in  tho  school   and  closely  followed.      This  order*/   ar- 
rangement of  classes  saves  the  time  of  teacher  and  pupils,  and 
develops   a   habit   of   preparing   for   tasks   and   meeting   them 
promptly.      The  periods  of  study  in  different  branches  should 
bo  so  arranged  as  to  separate  the  studies  requiring  close  appli- 
cation by  lighter  tasks.     A  program  gives  the  teacher  an  op- 
portunity to  insist  that  pupils  shall  give  their  full  thought  to 
one  topic  till  it  is  mastered.     The  power  of  holding  the  mind 
to  one  thing  at  a  time  till  that  is  mastered  is  necessary  to  suc- 
cess in  business  and  social  life  as  well  as  in  the  school  world. 

367.  If  possible,  secure  the  program  of  your  predecessor  bo- 
fore  beginning  the  school.      Examine  it  with  care  and  use   it 
until  you  are  sure  you  can  make  a  better  one.     Learn  the  num- 
ber, ago  and    capacity    of  the    pupils    who    are  to  study  each 
branch.     Assign  each  pupil  to  his  proper  form,  and  then  make 
&3  few  classes  as  possible  in  each  branch.     Fix  the  time  you 
will  give  to  each  branch.      Take  into  consideration  the  number 
and  age  of  pupils  in  determining  the  time  you  will  allot  to 
each  class. 

368.  Any  number  of  pupils  in  an  upper  form  class  requires 
moro  time-  for  recitation  than  tho  same  number  in  a  Primary 
Form  class ;  but  a  few  pupils  in  an  Upper  Form  class  may  ro- 
quiro  no  moro  time  for  recitation  than   a  large  number  in  a 
Primary  Form  class.      Primary  Form  classes  should  recite  not 

than  twice  daily,  and  oftener  if  possible.     If  it  be  imposr 


PROGRAM    OF    DAILY    EXERCISES.  267 

gible  to  have  all  classes  recite  daily,  let  some  recitations  of  the 
•'tipper  Form  alternate.  Twice  a  week  physiology  may  give 
place  to  drawing.  In  the  same  way  language  of  the  Middle 
Form  may  alternate  with  history  and  elementary  science,  the 
last  two  furnishing  abundance  of  the  best  material  for  the 
language  class. 

369.  When  several  pupils  are  studying  the  same  branch  in 
the  same  form  and  may  be  separated  into  several  groups  of  two 
or  three  pupils  each,  and  no  two  groups  are  working  in  the 
same  place,  do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  have  a  separate  pe- 
riod for  tlie  recitation  of  each  group.     Have  two  or  more  of 
the  groups  most  nearly  equal  in  advancement  recite  together 
during  the  recitation  period.   During  the  recitation  period  each 
group  in  the  class  may  be  doing  its  proper  work.     But  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  unite  these  groups  whenever  possible 
into  one  class  having  the  same  lesson.     By  pushing  the  back- 
ward group  and  giving  special  help,  while  allowing  the  more 
advanced  group  to  devote  more  time  to  other  branches,   they 
may  often  be  brought  together,  and  so  the  work  of  the  school 
may  be  done  more  economically.     Make  special  effort  to  have 
each  pupil  study  all  the  branches  for  which  he  is  prepared  and 
which  he  has  not  completed  in  any  form. 

370.  Have  no  pupil  recite  during  two  successive  recitation 
periods  if  it  can  be  avoided.     Begin  in  the  morning  with  those 
classes  which  may  be  depended  upon  to  prepare  for  the  recita- 
tion, or  with  those  classes  which  are  able  to  make  little  prepara- 
tion, as  Primary  Heading  classes.     Writing  or  drawing  should 
not  come  immediately  after  violent  physical  exercise. 

In  carrying  out  your  program,  before  beginning  any  recita- 
tion be  sure  that  every  pupil  except,  those  in  the  class  before 
you,  has  prepared  or  is  preparing  his  next  lesson. 

371.  The  program  presented  on  another  page  will  probably 
not  meet  the  exact  requirements  of  any  school  in  Wisconsin. 
It  was  not  prepared,  for  that  purpose,  but  rather  with  the  hope 
that  the  general  order  of  arrangement  and  apportionment  of 


MANUAL  of  THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

time  might  prove  suggestive.  The  apportionment  of  time 
among  the  various  branches  may  aid  inexperinced  teachers,  and 
those  liable  to  favor  special  branches,  in  making  a  proper  dis- 
tribution of  the  time  at  their  disposal. 

372.  In    the    following    program,  the    time    is    apportioned 
among    the    forms    as    follows:     To    the    Primary    Form,  95 
minutes;    to    the    Middle  Form,   80    minutes;  to    the  Upper 
Form,  115  minutes;  to  the  Middle  and  Upper  Forms  working 
together  in  Physiology  and  writing  exercises,  35  minutes;  thus 
leaving  35  minutes  for  opening  exercises  and  recesses. 

373.  By  branches  the  time  is  apportioned  as  follows:     To 
reading,  110  minutes;  to  arithmetic,  60  minutes;  to  language, 
40  minutes;  to  geography,   35  minutes;  to  spelling,   25   min- 
utes; to  history,   20   minutes;   to  physiology,   15   minutes;   to 
writing,  20  minutes;  to  opening  exercises,  5  minutes. 

374.  In  this  program  the  highest  class  in  each  branch  in  each 
Form  is  the  A  class. 

375.  Pupils  in  the  Primary  Form  should  have  daily  exer- 
cise in  writing  on  slates  and  in  number  work.     Such  instruc- 
tions as  may  be  necessary  for  this  work  should  be  given  in  some 
one  of  the  recitation  periods  alloted  for  Primary  Work. 

376.  Language  exercises  should  be  given  in  connection  with 
the  reading  lesson  in  all  classes  which  do  not  make  a  regular 
study  of  the  subject 


PROGRAM    OF    DAILY    EXERCISES. 


269 


377.       PROGRAM    OF    RECITATIONS    FOR    A   DISTRICT    SCHOOL 
HAVING    PUPILS    IN    ALL    FORMS. 

A.  M. 


a 

I 

Form. 

Branch. 

Text-Book, 

9:00 

Opening  Exercises- 

9:05 

c 

Primary 

Reading 

Primer  or  Chart. 

9:15 

B 

Primary 

Reading  

First  Reader. 

9:25 

A 

Primary  

Reading  

Second  Reader. 

9:40 

A 

Middle  

Reading  

Third  Reader. 

9:55 

A 

Upper 

Arithmetic.  .   . 

Practical. 

10:15 

Physiology  

General  Exercises,  Middle  and  Upper 

Forms. 

10:30 

Recess 

10-45 

c 

Primary 

Primer  or  Chart. 

10:55 

A 

Primary  

Arithmetic  

Oral. 

11:00 

A 

Middle  

Geography  ..   . 

Outline  Map  and  Elementary  Text- 

Look. 

11:20 

A 

Upper 

Geography  .. 

Advanced  Text-book. 

11  -40 

A 

Middle 

12:00 

Intermission. 

P.M. 


1:00 

A 

Upper  

i         History        ) 

S             and             > 

Where   both  branches  are  studied, 

i  Constitution.   \ 

classes  may  alternate 

1:20 

C 

Primary  

Reading  

Primer  or  Chart. 

1:30 

B 

Primary  

Reading  

Firs    Reader. 

1:40 
1:50 

A 
A 

Primary  
Middle"".... 

Reading  
Language  

Second  Reader. 
Language  Lesson. 

2:10 

Writing 

General  Exercises,  Middle  and  Upper 

Form. 

2:30 

Recess. 

2:45 

A 

Upper  ... 

Language  

Language  Lessons  or  Grammar. 

3:0') 

B&C 

Primary  

Arithmetic  

Oral. 

3:15 

A 

Upper 

Re  tdin°     

Fourth  Reader. 

3:35 

A 

Middle  

Spelling  

Spelling  book, 

8-15 

A 

Upper 

Spelling     .       .  . 

Spelling  book. 

4:00 

Dismissal. 

70         MANUAL  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF   STUDT. 


The  following  "Form"  program  of  study  and  recitation  may 
be  of  service  to  the  teacher  in  making  out  her  daily  program: 


Subjects 

Open  Min. 

Primary 

Arithmetic 

9:00  10 

60  Min. 

9:10  20 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

9:30  20 

Reading 

90  Min. 

9:50  20 

Number 

Geography 

10:10  20 

Form  Work 

40  Min. 

10:30   10 

Language 

10:40  20 

Reading 

30  Min. 

11:00  20 

Realm* 

History 

11:20  20 

Seat  Work 

Constitution 

11:40  20 

Reading 

and 

12:00   60 

Reading 

1:00   10 

i 

40  Min. 

1:10  20 

Reading 

Writing 

1:30  20 

Form  Work 

Language 

1:50  20 

Reading 

20  Min. 

2:10   20 

Writ.  Lang. 

Physiology 

2:30   10 

Agriculture 

2:40  20 

Spelling 

etc.,  30  Min. 

3:00   20 

Pays.  N,it.  V 

Bpelling 

3:20   20 

Spell.   Read 

20  Min. 

3:40  20 

Excused 

Middle  Upper 

Opening   Exercises. 

Arith.  Arith. 

Arith.  Reading 

Reading  Geography 

Geography  Geography 

Recess. 

Reading  Grammar 

Geography  Grammar 

Geography  Hist.  Const. 

Form  Work  Heading 
Intermission. 

Opening  Exercises. 

Physiology  Physiology 

History.  Grammar 

Hist.    Head.  Hist.    Const. 

Writ.    Lang.  Writ.    Lang. 

Recess. 

Spelling  His.Con.Read. 

Vk.Phys.  Nat.   Wk.Phys.     Agric. 

I.     Arith.  Spelling 

Spelling  Spelling 


SCHOOL    RECORDS.  271 


SCHOOL   RECORDS. 


378.  The  records  kept  by  most  of  the  common  schools  include 
only   the  enrollment,    age,    attendance   and   deportment  of   the 
pupils.     The   important   items   of   the   classification,    standing 
and  progress  of  these  pupils  in  the  studies  of  each  form  are 
wholly  ignored.     Yet  these  are  important  requisites  for  estal>- 
lishing  and  maintaining  a  continuous  course  of  study  in  the 
country  schools.     A  record  should  be  kept  of  the  classes  which 
each  pupil  enters,  the  time  of  entering,   time  of  leaving,  his 
standing  gained   in   recitations  or  examinations,   his  advance- 
ment in  his  studies  during  the  term,  his  promotions  to  higher 
classes,   and  suggestions  to  the  succeeding  teacher  where  the 
pupil  should  begin  at  the  opening  of  the  next  term.. 

379.  The  teacher  is  provided  with  a  register  in  which  should 
be  recorded  a  summary  of  the  items  specified  above. 

380.  The  proper    classification    of    pupils    of    the    common 
schools  and  their  regular  advancement  through  the  course  of 
study  depend  greatly  on  making  proper  records  of  each  pupil's 
work  in  each  study. 

381.  The  impression    seems  to    prevail  that    school  records 
are  complicated,  and  therefore  difficult     The  truth  is  that  the 
plainest  and  simplest  plan  possible  is  best 

382.  All  facts  relating  to  the  school  necessary  for  the  reports 
required  by  law  or  by  the  department  of  public  instruction^ 
may  bo  found  in  the  teacher's  register  if  it  has  been  properly 
completed. 


272 


MAXUAT,    OF   THE    ET.EMEIS' TAE  Y    COURSE    OF    STl'Dl  . 


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EXAMINATIONS     ANb     G  KA  I  >  CATION. 


EXAMINATIONS    AND    GRADUATION, 


383.  Besides  the  usual  examinations  of  pupils  held  for  the 
purpose  of  assigning  them  to  the  different  classes  under  each 
form  and  for  determining  their  progress  in  their  school  work, 
there  must  be  held  three  special  examinations,  one  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  whether  certain  pupils  are  ready  to  be  pro- 
moted from  the  primary  form  to  the  middle  form,  one  for  de- 
termining what  pupils  are  ready  to  be  promoted  from  the  mid- 
dle to  the  upper  form,  and  the  last  and  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant,  to  ascertain  what  pupils  have  so  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted their  work  as  to  be  entitled  to  graduation. 

384.  The  examination    for    promotion    from    form  to    form 
should  usually  take  place  at  the  close  of  the  ternu     It  some- 
times occurs  that  there  are  pupils  in  the  school  who,  because  of 
certain  advantages,  may  be  prepared  to  take  up  work  in  the 
next  form  above  before  the  close  of  the  term.      Special  exam- 
inations may   be  given   such    pupils   as   the   judgment   of   the 
teacher  may  direct.      The  teacher  should,  however,  consult  the 
school  board  or  the  county  superintendent  in  regard  to  these 
examinations    for    individual    promotion.      The    school    record 
should  be  so  kept  as  to  show  when  all  promotlcms  are  made. 
The  examination  held  for  the  purpose  of  determining  who  have 
completed  the  full  course  of  study  should  occur  but  once  each 
year,  probably  at  the  close  of  the  winter  term.      The  reasons 
for  fixing  this  date  are    obvious.     While  the  examinations  for 
promotion  from  one  form  to  the  other,  and  from  one  class  to 
the  other,  may  be  largely  oral  the  examination  for  graduation 

19— a 


274          MANUAL   OF  THE  ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF    STUDY. 

should  be  chiefly  written  and  a  minim-urn  standing  for  each 
study  with  an  average  for  all  the  studies  should  be  fixed.  The 
county  superintendent  must  be  consulted  upon  this  point  It 
is  clear  that  there  should  be  no  spirit  of  favoritism  shown,  by 
the  examiners  nor  should  any  pupil  be  permitted  to  pass  with- 
out meeting  the  required  test  in  the  prescribed  studies.  The 
character  of  his  daily  recitations  and  his  ability  as  tested  in 
the  occasional  examinations  may,  however,  be  considered  by 
the  examiners  when  the  final  standing  of  each  pupil  is  de- 
termined. 

385.  The  examinations    for    promotion    from    one    form    to 
another  should  be  held  by  the  teacher  with  the  consent  of  the 
board  or  executive  committee  and  under  the  direction  of  the 
county    superintendent.     The    county    superintendent    should 
suggest  the  standings  to  be  fixed  at  each,  of  the  examinations 
and    the    examination    for    graduation    should    be    conducted 
largely  under  his  direction,  and  he  should  furnish  the  ques- 
tions to  be  submitted  and  outline  a  specific  plan  and  program 
to  be  followed. 

386.  The  usual  method  of  conducting  the  examination  for 
graduation  from  the  common  schools  is  for  the  county  superin- 
tendent to  send  to  each  teacher  a  few  days  before  the  time  fixed 
for  the  examinations  throughout  the  county,  a  copy  of  the  ques- 
tions, securely  sealed  in  an  envelope  with  instructions  printed 
on  the  outside.     This  envelope  must  be  opened  by  no  one  except 
the  teacher  and  by  the  teacher  only  in  the  presence  of  the 
pupils.     The  reasons  for  this  are  plain.     When  the  papers  of 
all  the  pupils  are  marked  and  graded  by  the  teacher,  the  pap<  is 
of  those  whose  standings  meet  the  required  test  as  well  as  the 
papers  of  those  whose  work  is  doubtful,  are  forwarded  to  the 
county  superintendent  for  further  and  final  examination.     A 
form    of    statement    prepared    by    the    county    superintendent 
should  be  filled  out  by  the  teacher  and  signed  by  at  least  two  of 
the  older  pupils  in  the  school,  to  the  effect  that  they  were  witr 
nesses  to  the  opening  of  the  sealed  envelope  containing  the  ques- 


EXAMINATIONS     AND     GRADUATION.  275 

tioiis  and  that  said  envelope  was  opened  in  the  presence  of  the 
school  assembled  at  that  time.  This  plan  of  final  examination 
is  oomraon  and  in  many  cases  is  probably  the  best  that  can  be 
devised.  Some  county  superin  ten  dents  have,  however,  secured 
a  special  allowance  from  their  county  board  of  supervisors  per- 
mitting them  to  engage  three  examiners,  none  of  whom  shall  bo 
interested  either  directly  or  indirectly  in  any  of  the  applicants 
for  the  graduation  diploma.  This  examining  board  holds  the 
examinations  in  different  parts  of  the  county,  as  directed  by  the 
county  superintendent.  Upon  this  board  rests  the  responsibil- 
ity of  marking  the  papers  and  sending  the  results  to  the  county 
superintendent.  The  county  superintendent  must,  however, 
reserve  the  privilege  of  refusing  to  accept  the  markings  and  he 
will  issue  the  diplomas  in  accordance  with  his  judgment  This 
plan,  where  adopted,  has  been  very  satisfactory.  The  county 
superintendent  should  use  every  effort  in  his  power  to  stimu- 
late pupils  to  attempt  these  examinations,  as  well  as  the  exam- 
inations for  promotion  from  form  to  form.  In  this  way  he  will 
render  the  schools  under  his  jurisdiction  a  most  excellent  serv- 
ice. He  must  also  exercise  sound  discretion  as  to  the  character 
of  the  questions  submitted  and  the  method  of  conducting  the 
examinations.  It  will  no  be  out  of  place  for  him  to  send  to  his 
teachers  neatly  printed  certificates  of  promotion  from  form  to 
form.  The  diploma  issued  after  the  final  examination  should 
lx)  neat  and  appropriate  in  form  and  matter  and  should  con- 
tain places  for  the  signature  of  the  teacher,  at  least  one  mem- 
ber of  the  school  board  and  the  county  superintendent  It 
should  be  a  document  prized  by  the  holder. 


387.    COMMON    SCHOOL    CERTIFICATE. 

Primary   Form. 

This  certifies  that — ,  of  District  No.  — ,  in  the  town 

of  -    — ,  in  the  county  of ,  State  of  Wisconsin,  is  herewith 

promoted  to  the  Middle  Form,  for  having  completed  that  pop- 


276          MANUAL   OF   THE  -ELEMENTARY    COURSE    OF    STUDY. 

tion  of  the  Course  of  Study  in  the  Common  Branches  embraced 
in  the  Primary  Form  of  the  Public  School  of  said  district, 
— ,  A.  D.  19—.  —    Teacher. 

-,  Director  of  District  No.  — . 


388.    COMMON    SCHOOL    CERTIFICATE 

Middle  Form. 

This  certifies  that  — — •,  of  District  No.  — ,  in  the  town 

of  — ,  in  the  county  of  — — •,  State  of  Wisconsin,  is  herewith 

promoted  to  the  Upper  Form,  as  • — • — •  has  this  day  completed 
that  portion  of  the  Course  of  Study  in  the  Common  Branches 
embraced  in  the  Middle  Form  of  the  Public  School  of  said  dis- 
trict 

— — ,  A.  D.  19 — .  — >  Teacher. 

— . — . — .  — ,  Director  of  District  No.  — . 

389.    DEPARTMENT  OF   PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 

• — •  County,   Wisconsin. 

Common  School  Diploma. 

This  certifies  that — ,  of  District  No.  — ,  in  the  town 

of  ,  has  this  day  completed  the  Course  of  Study  in  the 

Commjon  Branches  required  by  Law  to  be  taught  in  the  Public 
Schools  of  the  State,  viz. :  Reading,  Spelling,  Orthoepy,  Eng- 
lish Grammar,  Arithmetic,  Eflements  of  Agriculture,  Oleog- 
raphy, Writing,  United  States  History,  the  Constitution  of 
United  States  and  that  of  Wisconsin,  Physiology  and  Hygiene, 
— ,  A.  D.  19—. 

County  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
Teacher  of  District  No.  — . 
-,  Director  of  District  No.  — . 


COURSE   OF   STUDY 


FOR 


State  Graded  Schools 


OF 


WISCONSIN 


INTRODUCTORY. 


Complying  with  the  requests  of  many  superintendents  and 
teachers,  the  Course  of  Study  for  State  Graded  Schools  is 
printed  in  connection  with  the  course  of  study  for  the  common 
schools  of  tli is  state.  This  course  of  study  will  assist  all  teach- 
ers to  determine  how  much  work  should  1x3  attempted  each 
year  of  each  form.  The  teacher,  however,  should  keep  MI 
mind  that  under  the  course  for  one  department  schools  nine 
years'  work  is  outlined  while  under  the  state  graded  school 
course  the  same  amount  of  work  is  completed  in  eight  years. 

The  law  relating  to  state  aid  for  graded  schools  provides  as 
follows : 

"Sufficient  equipment,  including  globes,  maps,  blackboards, 
library,  and  other  essentials  for  the  proper  work  of  the  school, 
shall  be  provided  by  the  school  district. 

Each  department,  the  primary  excopted,  should  be  provided 
with  a  globe,  and  a  good  set  of  outline  maps.  The  lower  de- 
partment should  have  a  good  reading  chart,  and  each  depart- 
ment should  have  a  good  blackboard  of  not  less  than  fifty 
square  feet 

There  should  be  in  each  school  a  well  equipped  library  of 
books,  selected  from  the  township  library  list  issued  by  the 
State  Superintendent.  Each  school  should  also  have  sets  of 
supplementary  first,  second  and  third  readers,  and  a  set  of 
geographical  readers.  The**©  books  are  inexpensive,  and  if 
properly  cared  for  will  last  a  number  of  years. 

The  attention  of  teachers,  county  superintendents,  and  school 
boards  is  called  to  the  statute  providing  for  the  organization 
of  graded  schools  of  the  first  and  the  second  class  in  Wisconsin. 


280  COUliSE    OF    STUDY    FOIi    STATE   GRADED    SCHOOLS. 

So  much  of  chapter  439,  of  the  laws  of  1901,  amended  by  the 
laws  of  1903  and  1905,  as  pertains  to  this  subject  is  herewith 
given. 

CHAPTER  439,  LAWS  OF  1901. 
AID  TO  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

Bi3tricts    which    may    receive    state    aid    for    graded    schools. 

SECTION  9.  The  school  board  of  any  school  district  contain- 
ing within  its  limits  a  graded  school  but  no  free  high  school, 
nor  a  high  school  of  a  grade  equivalent  to  a  free  high  school, 
town  free  high  schools  excepted,  may  receive  special  state  aid 
as  hereinafter  provided,  upon  full  compliance  with  the  follow- 
ing conditions: 

Classes.  1.  There  shall  be  two  classes  of  state  graded 
schools  in  Wisconsin,  known  Mfieetlvelj  as  first  class,  and 
second  class;  all  state  graded  schools  of  three  or  more  depart- 
ments shall  be  in  the  first  class,  and  all  state  graded  schools  of 
two  departments  shall  be  in  the  second  class. 

2.  Schools  shall  be  maintained  in  the  district  receiving  such 
aid,  at  least  nine  school  months,  including  legal  holidays,  in 
each  and  every  department.  At  least  three  departments  in 
schools  of  the  first  class  and  both  departments  in  schools  of  the 
second  class  shall  have  an  average  daily  attendance  of  not  less 
than  fifteen  pupils  for  the  entire  school  year,  to  entitle  the 
school  to  state  aid. 

Qualifications  of  teachers.  3.  All  persons  employed  in  both 
classes  of  graded  schools  applying  for  state  aid  shall  be  com- 
petent teachers  and  shall  hold  the  following  grade  of  certifi- 
cates: The  principal  of  a  state  graded  school  of  the  first  class 
shall  hold  some  form  of  a  state  certificate.  In  each  school  of 
this  class  one  assistant  shall  hold  a  third  grade  certificate,  or 
a  certificate  of  a  higher  grade,  provided  such  assistant,  if  hold- 
ing a  third  grade  certificate,  shall  also  have  had  one  year's  suc- 
cessful experience  as  a  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  Wis- 
consin ;  one  assistant  shall  hold  a  second  grade  certificate  or  a 
certificate  of  a  higher  grade,  and  all  other  assistants  shall  hold 
first  grade  certificates  or  certificates  of  a  higher  grade.  The 
principal  of  a  state  graded  school  of  the  second  class  shall  hold 
a  first  grade  county  certificate,  or  some  form  of  a  state  certifi- 
cate, and  the  assistant  shall  hold  a  third  grade  certificate  or  a 
certificate  of  a  higher  grade,  provided  such  assistant,  if  hold- 
ing a  third  grade  certificate,  shall  also  have  had  one  year's  sue- 


COURSE    OF    STUDY     Foil    STATE    GRADED    SCHOOLS. 

cessful  experience  as  a  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  Wis- 
consin. The  word  "principal"  is'  hereby  interpreted  as  mean- 
ing the  teacher  of  the  highest  gra.de  or  grades  in  the  school 
who  shall  have  immediate  supervision  of  all  the  grades;  the 
word  "assistant"  is  hereby  interpreted  as  meaning  each  and 
every  teacher  in  a  state  graded  school  other  than  the  principal. 
Condition  of  building  and  grounds.  4.  The  schoolhouse  or 
schoolhouses,  the  outhouses  and  grounds,  the  furniture  and 
equipment,  shall  be  maintained  in  good  condition  and  kept  free 
from  any  unsanitary  feature. 

Equipment  required.  5.  Sufficient  equipment,  including 
globes,  maps,  blackboards,  library,  and  other  essentials  for  the 
proper  work  of  the  school  shall  be  provided  by  the  school  dis- 
trict 

Application  for  aid;  must  be  inspected.  6.  When  the  school 
board  of  any  school  district  desires  to  secure  state  aid  for  its 
graded  schools,  said  school  board  shall  make  written  applica- 
tion for  the  same  to  the  state  superintendent,  No  graded 
school  shall  be  entitled  to  be  placed  upon  the  list  of  state 
graded  schools  and  to  receive  special  state  aid  until  said  school 
shall  have  been  duly  inspected  by  the  state  superintendent,  or 
some  member  of  his  staff,  and  found  to  be  fully  complying 
\vilh  all  the  conditions  of  this  act. 

Application  before  September  1.  7.  In  order  that  any  graded 
-ohool  may  receive  special  state  aid  as  herein  provided,  appli- 
cation shall  be  made  to  the  state  superintendent  by  the  school 
!»«>ard  before  the  first  day  of  September  preceding  the  school 
year  for  which  said  special  state  aid  is  requested. 

Amount  of  aid  for  two  classes  of  graded  schools;  apportion- 
ment. SECTION  10.  Any  school  dis.triot  which  shall  have 
maintained  a  graded  school  of  the  first  class  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  from  the 
general  fund  of  the  state,  annually,  the  sum  of  three  hundred 
dollars.  Any  school  district  which  shall  have  maintained  a 
graded  school  of  the  second  class  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  from  the  general 
fund  of  the  state,  annually,  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars. 
To  obtain  such  state  aid  the  school  board  shall  on  or  before  the 
first,  day  of  August  of  each  year,  succeeding  the  school  year  in 
which  application  is  made,  report  to  the  state  superintendent, 
under  their  oaths,  that  such  state  graded  school  has  complied 


282      COUHSE  OF  STUDY  FUR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

with  all  the  provisions  of  this  act.  Thereupon,  the  said  state 
superintendent  shall  fix  the  amount  to  bo  paid  such  district, 
and  certify  the  same  to  the  secretary  of  state ;  the  secretary  of 
state  shall  then  draw  his  warrants  upon  the  state  treasurer  for 
the  several  claims  of  the  school  districts.  The  secretary  of 
state  shall  annually  include  and  apportion  in  the  state  tax  such 
sum  as  shall  have  been  certified  by  the  state  superintendent 
under  the  provisions  of  this  act;  upon  receipt  of  the  annual 
state  taxes  said  state  treasurer  shall  pay  to  the  school  district 
treasurers,  the  several  amounts  called  for  by  such  warrants. 
The  state  superintendent  is  hereby  empowered  to  refuse  state 
aid  to  any  school  district  which  in  his  judgment  has  failed  to 
comply  with  the  provisions  of  this  act.  The  whole  amount  an- 
nually paid  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  shall  not  exceed 
eighty  thousand  dollars,  and  if  more  be  demanded  by  the  state 
graded  schools,  it  shall  be  paid  proportionally.  Any  unex- 
pended balance  shall  revert  to  the  general  fund. 

Inspectors.  SECTION  11.  The  state  superintendent  is  here- 
by authorized  to  appoint  two  persons  of  suitable  qualifications 
to  assist  him  in  inspecting  and  supervising  the  state  graded 
and  free  high  schools,  and  to  aid  him  in  giving  information 
and  needed  assistance  to  localities  in  organizing  such  schools. 
Such  persons  shall  be  known  as  state  school  inspectors, 

Course  of  study;  reports.  SECTION  12.  The  state  superin- 
tendent shall  prepare  a  course  of  study  suitable  to  be  pursued 
in  graded  schools,  publish  the  same,  and  furnish  to  school 
boards  upon  application.  This  course  of  study  shall  be  fol- 
lowed by  all  state  graded  schools,  as  one  condition  of  semi-ing 
special  state  aid.  Said  state  superintendent  shall  furnish  suit- 
able blanks  for  annual  and  special  reports  for  all  such  stnte 
graded  schools,  which  reports  shall  call  for  such  information 
as  he  may  deem  necessary.  The  refusal  or  neglect  of  the 
school  board  or  any  of  its  officers  to  file  these  reports  with  the 
state  superintendent  when  called  for,  shall  be  deemed  sufficient 
ground  for  refusing  special  state  aid,  as  provided  for  in  this 
act. 

Number  limited;  incorporated  cities  excluded.  SKCTIOX  13. 
Xo  more  than  one  such  graded  school  in  any  village,  or  school 
district  or  sub-district,  shall  receive  state  aid  as  herein  pro- 
vided, nor  shall  any  graded  school  in  any  incorporated  city 
participate  in  said  state  aid. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOE  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.     283 


COURSE   OF  STUDY. 


FIRST  GRADE. 


390.  READING. 

Blackboard,  word  cards,  charts  and  First  Reader. 

1.  Learning   to    call    at   sight,  from    blackboard,  word    cards, 

charts  and  books  all  the  words  found  in  the  Primer  and 
First  Reader. 

2.  Reading  at  sight  sentences  formed  from  the  words  learned. 

3.  Phonic  drill  or  separation  of  spoken  words  into  their  ele- 

mentary sounds  and  association  of  these  sounds  with  the 
letters  which  stand  for  them. 

4.  Drill  in  articulation. 

5.  Intelligent,  distinct    and    ready    reading  of    lessons  on  the 

chart  and   in   the   Primer  (if   one   be   used),  and    First 
Reader. 

6.  Demand  correct  expression  from  the  very  first,     Word  call- 

ing is  not  reading. 

T.  Develop  the  power  in  the  child  to  grasp  the  group  of  words 
at  sight. 

391.  LANGUAGE, 
1.     Conversational  Exercises. 

The  teacher  should  talk  with  the  children  about  tilings  with 
which  they  are  familiar.  Thus  two  ends  will  bo  attained : 
cultivation  of  the  power  to  express  thought,  and  familiarity 
with  the  teacher.  Considerable  of  this  work  shonlj  be  done 
before  any  teaching  is  attempted  in  other  branches. 


284     COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 


2.  Picture  Talks. 

Train  the  children  to  talk  about  interesting  pictures  which 
may  be  on  the  reading  chart,  in  the  Primer,  or  furnished  by 
the  teacher.  This  work  should  not  consist  in  the  teacher's  ask- 
ing questions  and  the  children's  answering  them  in  one  or  two 
words ;  questioning  in  such  a  way  does  not  develop  language. 
Neither  does  it  consist  in  the  teacher's  asking  questions  and 
rigidly  insisting  that  the  children  answer  in  complete  sen- 
tences. This  is  not  language  but  something  that  is  entirely 
mechanical  Language  means  converting  thought  into  con>- 
nected  expression.  Lead  the  children  to  talk  connectedly  about 
the  picture.  Children  having  sufficient  imagination  may  be 
led  to  tell  delightful  little  stories  which  portray  action, 

3.  Simple  Story  Telling. 

This  should  consist  both  in  having  the  children  tell  the  sim- 
ple stories  which  they  read  in  the  Primer  and  First  Reader, 
and  of  stories  told  to  the  children  by  the  teacher  and  retold  by 
the  children.  Insist  on  the  child's  telling  the  complete  story. 
Do  not  hamper  his  thought  and  cripple  his  language  by  ques- 
tions; questions  have  their  place,  but  it  is  not  to  develop  lan- 
guage. Let  the  questions  come  after  the  child  has  told  all  he 
can  without  interruption,  then  question  him  to  bring  out  points 
he  has  omitted. 

Little  attention  should  be  paid  to  errors  in  language  until 
the  child  can  talk  connectedly  and  fluently.  The  first  object 
is  to  get  the  child  to  use  language  of  some  kind,  then  mould 
this  into  correct  expression. 

392.  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  Counting,  grouping,  and  other  object  exercises  in  number. 

2.  Reading  and  writing  numbers  to  100. 

3.  Addition  and    subtraction    of    ones    and    twos  with  single 

digit  numbers. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.     285 

4.  Simple  practical  problems  by  teacher  and  pupils,  based  on 
"3"  of  the  foregoing. 

This  work  may  be  done  incidentally  in  connection  with  read- 
ing, writing,  language  and  drawing.  Reading,  writing,  spell- 
ing and  language  should  be  emphasized  in  the  primary  form. 
Arithmetic  can  very  readily  be  finished  later  on,  when  the  pu- 
pil has  secured  a  fair  mastery  of  the  subjects  mentioned. 

Objects  should  be  used  to  teach  the  meaning  of  numbers  and 
in  connection  with  counting.  Do  not  use  objects  to  teach  addi- 
tion. Addition  is  a  memory  process  and  must  be  taught  as 
such. 

393.  SPELLING. 

1.  Oral  spelling  from  chart  and  reader. 

2.  Copy  words  from  blackboard. 


394.  WRITING. 

1.  Training  in  position,   and  manner  of  holding 

2.  Letters,  words  and  sentences  from  blackboard, 
o.   Words  and  sentence's  from  Reader. 

4.    Secure  good   form. 

Pupils  may  use  slate  or  paper  and  soft  pencil. 

335.   DRAWING,  SINKING. 
See  Common  School  llanual. 

395a.  PHYSIOLOGY. 
SOP  Common  School  Manual,  numbers  270,  271. 


286     COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 


SECOND  GRADE. 


396.  READING. 

Supplementary  First  Reader  and  Second  Reader,  black- 
board and  charts  prepared  by  teacher,  giving  lists  of  new  words 
taught  for  use  in  drill  in  pronunciation. 

1.  Continue  work  begun  in  First  Grade  in  phonic  drill,  intro- 

ducing marks  of  long  and  short  vowels  and  consonants. 

2.  Continue  drill  in  articulation. 

3.  Drill  in  reading  to  secure  an  agreeable  tone  of  voice,  ready 

control  of  vocal  organs,  correct  emphasis  and  inflection. 

4r.   Simple  stories,  fables,  and  folk  lore,  read  to  and  by  the  pu- 
pils and  told  by  the  pupils. 

5.   Short  pieces  memorized  and  recited. 

Use  first  reader  for  first  four  months  at  least;  use  it  longer 

if  pupils  are  backward. 

397.  LANGUAGE. 

1.  Continue  oral  language  work  in  connection  with  the  read- 

ing. 

2.  Tell  a  story  or  fable  and  then  ask  for  its  oral  reproduction. 

3.  Teach  pupils  to  use  a  capital  letter  at  the  beginning  of  a 

sentence,  that  the  pronoun  I  should  always  be  a  capital, 
and  the  correct  use  of  the  period  and  question  mark. 

4.   Correct  Use  of  Troublesome  Words. 

There  is  but  one  way  for  a  child  to  learn  to  do  a  thing  and 
that  is  by  actually  doing  it.  A  child  can  never  learn  to  use, 
to,  too,  two,  was,  were,  have,  has,  etc.,  correctly  by  filling 
blanks.  That  is  asking  the  child  to  do  a  thing  that  he  knows 
nothing  about  The  only  time  to  use  the  blanks  is  at  the  very 


COURSE    OF    STUDY     FuK    STATE    GRADED    SCnOOLS.  287 

last  as  a  test  to  find  out  whether  the  child  has  acquired  the 
h;il)it  of  using  these  words  correctly.  To  learn  to  use  these 
troublesome  words  correctly,  the  child  must  have  daily  prac- 
tice in  using  them  correctly  in  his  ordinary  work. 

398.  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  "Reading  and  writing  numbers  to  1,000. 

2.  The  forty-five    combinations    of    addition     and   subtraction 

thoroughly  mastered. 

0.  .Multiplication  tables  of  twos  and  threes. 

4.  X nines  and  uses  of  +,  — ,  X,  -i-,  =. 

5.  Simple  problems  by  teacher  and  pupils  based  on  the  fore- 

going. 

C.  Base  all  work  done  by  pupils  at  their  seats  on  their  abso- 
lute knowledge  of  the  combinations.  Do  not  let  a  com- 
bination enter  into  their  written  work  unless  you  are  ab- 
solutely certain  that  the  pupils  know  it>  otherwise  the 
pupils  will  count  and  not  add. 

399.  SPELLING. 

1.  Oral  spoiling  Of  new  words  of  reading  lesson. 

2.  Drill    on    syllabication,    pronouncing    each    syllable    after 

spelling  it, 

400.  WRITING. 

1.  Training  in  position,  and  manner  of  holding  pencil. 

2.  Copying  from  blackboard. 
-}.   Copying  from  reader. 

4.  Secure  legibility. 

5.  Work  for  perfect  form, 

401.  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

See  Common  School  Manual,  numbers  270,  271,   272. 


288  COURSE    OF    STUDY    FOR    STATE.   GRADED    SCHOOLS. 

402.  HISTORY. 

Oral  work. 

1.  Stories  about  boyhood  of  Columbus,  Franklin,  Washington, 

Lincoln. 

2.  Stories  from  mythology. 

No  special  period  for  the  foregoing  is  needed.     It  can  be 
covered  in  connection  with  the  language  work, 

403.  DRAWING,  SINGING. 
See  Common  School  Manual 


THIRD  GRADE. 


404.  HEADING. 

Supplementary  Second  Header  and  books  of  similar  grade 
from  the  school  library,  blackboard  and  charts  prepared  by  the 
teacher  giving  lists  of  new  words  taught,  for  use  in  drill  in 
pronunciation. 

1.  Work  in  phonic  drill  and  diacritical  markings  continued. 

2.  Continue   drill  in  articulation   using  difficult  combinations 

of  sounds. 

3.  Continue  work  indicated  in  3,  4,  and  5,  for  second  grade. 

405.  LANGUAGE. 

1.  Continue  the  work  on  the  story  and  its  oral  reproduction  by 

the  pupil. 

2.  Have  pupils  Avrite  short  stories  from  pictures  and  geography 

work. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOE  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.     2S9 

3.  Oommit  to  memory  choice  selections  found  in  the  reader  or 

other  books. 

4.  Correct  errors.     Insist  on   correct  language* 

5.  Language  and  Reading. 

406.  After  the  second  grade,  and  if  possible  during  the  sec- 
ond your,  pupils  should  tell  the  story  of  their  reading  lesson  at 
e.idi  recitation  before  reading.  When  the  class  is  large  it  may 
not  be  possible  to  have  every  member  of  the  class  tell  the  story 
every  time,  but  at  least  a  part  should  do  so.  Do  not  question 
them  until  they  have  finished  talking.  If  at  first  the  children 
do  not  know  how  to  proceed,  the  teacher  should  tell  the  story, 
for  them  in  very  simple  language  and  in  an  interesting  man- 
ner, then  have  the  children  tell  it.  This  will  not  need  to  be 
done  many  times  before  the  children  get  the  idea,  and  will  be 
able  to  tell  the  story  without  help  from  the  teacher.  For  vari- 
ety have  them  read  a  paragraph  silently  and  then  call  upon 
the  pupils  to  give  the  substance  of  the  paragraph.  This  will 
cultivate  a  habit  of  thoughtful  reading.  Also  have  one  mem- 
ber of  the  class  read  orally  while  the  others  listen,  then  call 
upon  different  members  of  the  class  to  tell  what  was  read. 
This  will  stimulate  the  power  of  attention  and  give  training  in 
language.  Continue  language  in  connection  with  reading  dur- 
ing the  entire  course. 

6.   Written  Language. 

As  soon  as  the  child  has  learned  to  tell  a  story  well  orally, 
and  has  learned  to  write,  the  writing  of  stories  should  be  com- 
menced. From  this  time  on,  have  the  children  do  both  oral 
and  written  work  in  language, 

7.  Punctuation  and  Capitalization. 

Drill   upon   correct  use  of  capital   letters   and   punctuation 
marks  commonly  used,   as  soon   as  written   language  is  COILL- 
20— C. 


200     COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

menced.  Teach  these  subjects  every  day  in  connection  with 
written  language.  Cultivate  the  habit  of  doing  these  things 
correctly  by  practice. 

407.  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  Review  thoroughly  the  entire  work  of  second  grade. 

2.  Notation  and  numeration  to  10,000. 

3.  Multiplication  tables  mastered  as  far  as  the  6's,  inclusive. 

4.  Processes   of   the   four   fundamental    operations   thoroughly 

mastered,  so  far  as  their  knowledge  of  the  multiplication 
table  permits.  Addends,  minuends,  and  dividends  not  to 
exceed  one  thousand ;  divisors  not  to  exceed  one  digit 

5.  Master  portions    of    the    tables  of    liquid,  dry,  and    linear 

measure  so  far  as  their  reduction  can  be  used  in  the  opera- 
tions indicated  above.  The  reduction  should  be  limited 
to  two  denominations  in  the  same  example. 

6.  United  States  Money. 

Beading  and  writing  numbers  representing  dollars  and 
cents,  and  simple  operations  involving  their  use. 

7.  Practical  problems  by  teacher  and  pupils  involving  the  fore- 

going. 

Strive  to  secure  accuracy  and  rapidity,  nothing  short  of  ab- 
solute accuracy  is  of  any  value. 

408.  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Observational  Geography. 

a.  Exercises  on  location. 

b.  The  land  and  water  forms  of  the  home  region. 

c.  Elementary  facts  in  the  physiography  of  the  home  re- 

gion. 

d.  Elements  of  industrial  geography. 

2.  Geographical  stories  told  and  read  to  pupils. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOE  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.     291 

Geography  work  in  the  third  and  fourth  grades  should  be 
conducted  largely  as  a  language  exercise.  Geographical  stories 
should  be  read  to  and  by  the  pupils  and  reproduced  by  them 
both  orally  and  in  written  form. 

Geography  work  of  this  grade  may  be  done  in  language 
class  in  schools  where  program  is  crowded.  Geographical  and 
historical  stories  make  the  best  possible  basis  for  language 
work. 

Note:  The  following  books  found  in  the  district  library 
will  be  found  valuable  in  carrying  out  the  work  outlined  in  the 
third  and  fourth  grades. 

"Big  People  and  Little  People  of  other  Lands,"  "Fairbank's 
Home  Geography,"  "Little  Folks  of  Many  Lands,"  "Children 
of  the  Palm  Lands,"  "Our  Little  Chinese  Cousin." 


409.  SPELLING. 

1.  Use  a  good  spelling  book  and  have  the  pupils  spell  orally 

twice  per  day  from  it. 

2.  Continue   oral    spelling    of    difficult    words  from  reading 

lesson. 

3.  Have  pupils  pronounce  words  before  they  attempt  to  spell 

them. 

4.  Give  oral  and  written  reviews. 


410.  WRITING. 

1.  Copying  with  pencil  and  paper. 

2.  Use  of  pen  taught, — training  in   position,   movement   and 

manner,  same  as  with  pencil,  care  of  the  pen. 

3.  Insist  on  neatness  and  legibility  in  all  written  work. 


292  COURSE   OF    STUDY    FOR    STATE    GRADED    SCHOOLS. 

411.    PHYSIOTX3GY    AND    HYGIENE. 

See  Common  School  Manual,  numbers  270,  271,  272. 

412.  HISTORY. 

1.  Stories  from  mythology  continued. 

2.  Biographies  of  Columbus,  Franklin,  Washington,   Lincoln, 

Longfellow. 

3.  The  Indians. 

This  may  also  bo  taken  in  connection  with  language  work. 
It  should  be  largely  oral.  The  teacher  may  tell  or  read  a  story 
and  then  call  on  the  pupils  for  reproduction. 

413.  DRAWING,  SINGING. 
See  Common  School  Manual. 


FOURTH  GRADE. 


414.  READING. 

Third  reader  and  books  of  similar  grade  found  in  the  school 
library. 

t.  Work  in  phonic  drill,  in  diacritical  markings,  and  in  cor- 
rect articulation  continued. 

2.  Mastery  of  the  thought  and  of  the  pronunciation  of  words 

insisted  upon  as  a  preparation  for  the  oral  reading  of  the 
lesson. 

3.  Pupils  trained  in  stating  orally  the  substance  of  the  reading 

lesson,  sometimes  beef  ore  and  sometimes  after  the  reading, 
aiming  to  secure  good  expression.  (That  the  pupils  fol- 
low closely  the  words  of  the  lesson  is  not  objectionable.) 


COURSE  OP  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.     293 

4.  Good  expression  should  bo  insisted  upon.     Frequent  read- 

ing of  lessons  already  gone  over  and  with  which  the  pu- 
pils are  familiar  will  give  excellent  opportunity  for  drill 
in  expression. 

5.  Choice  selections  memorized  and  recited. 


415.  LANGUAGE. 

1.  Continue  the  reproduction  of  the  story  both  orally  and  in 

writing. 

2.  Teach  letter  writing,  paying  particular  attention  to  capital- 

ization, punctuation,  and  arrangements  of  the  parts. 

3.  Continue  the  work  of  writing  stories  from  pictures. 

4.  Secure  the  correct  use  of  possessive  and  plural  forms  of 

nouns  and  the  common  irregular  verbs. 

5.  Correct  errors.     Insist  on  correct  language. 

In  this  grade  teach 'the  form  of  the  composition.  Some  in- 
struction may  be  given  along  this  line  earlier  than  the  fourth 
year*  this  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  advancement  of  the 
pupiL 

416.  ARITIOIETIC. 

1.  Thoroughly  review  the  work  of  second  and  third  grades. 

2.  Notation  and  numeration  to  third  period.     Law  of  deci- 

mal notation  developed  so  far  as  it  relates  to  integers. 

3.  Complete  work  on  multiplication  tables  and  processes  in 

division. 

4.  Definitions  of  terms  used. 

5.  Forms  of  bills  and  receipts. 

G.     Continued    drill    in    practical    problems,    formulated    by 

teacher  and  pupils,  including  use  of  United  States  money, 

dry,  liquid,  and  linear  measures,  and  avoirdupois  weight. 

Do  not  use  large  numbers.     Q(uick,  sharp  drills  on  many 

problems  involving  small  numbers  are  far  preferable  to  work 

on  a  few  problems  involving  large  numbers.     Divisors  as  a 


294     COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

rule  should  not  exceed  throe  digits.  A  few  examples  involv- 
ing larger  divisors  may  be  given  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the 
power  of  pupils. 

417.  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Needed  reviews  on,  and  amplification  of,  work  on  observar 

tions;  geography. 

2.  Work  on  geographical  stories  continued,  (read  by  pupils). 

3.  Lessons  on  the  globe. 

a.  Shape  and  size  of  the  earth. 

b.  The  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  and  the  effects  of 

the  rotation. 

c.  The  great  land  and  water  forms  of  the  earth. 

d.  Transition  of  the  globe  to  outline  maps. 

e.  The  races  of  men,  and  their  distribution. 

f.  Lessons  on  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man. 

4.  Lessons  on  outline  maps. 

5.  Elementary  text  book  introduced. 

Teach  the  use  of  the  text  book  and  do  enough  work  with  it 
so  that  the  pupils'  work  will  be  strong  during  the  following 
year. 

418.  SPELLING. 

1.  Oral  spelling  from  speller  twice  per  day. 

2.  Continue  the  oral  spelling  of  difficult  words  from  the  read- 

ing and  other  lessons. 

419.  WRITING. 

1.  Copy  book  No.  3. 

2.  Secure  legibility. 

3.  Letter  writing. 

4.  Insist  on  neatness  and  legibility  in  all  written  work. 

420.  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 
See  Common  School  Manual,  numbers  273,  274,  275,  276. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.        295 

421.  HISTORY. 

1.  Biographies  of  Captain  John  Smith,  Daniel  Bbone,  Grant> 

Morse,  Whittier,  Bryant,  Webster. 

2.  Pioneer  history  stories  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 

3.  Stories  of  the  Badger  state. 

The  foregoing  may  be  given  in  connection  with,  language 
work  and  supplementary  reading. 

422.  DRAWING,  SINGING. 
See  Common  School  Manual. 


FIFTH  GRADE. 


423.  READING. 

Supplementary  Third  Reader,   and  books  of  similar  grade 
from  the  school  Library. 

1.  Continue  work  indicated  in  course  of  study  for  preceding 

grade  and  teach  use  of  dictionary  for  pronunciation  and 
as  an  aid  in  getting  meanings  of  words. 

2.  Frequent  exercises  in  sight  reading  from  books  in  the  school 

library    and    from    work    previously     gone    over    in    the 
readers. 

3.  Choice  selections  memorized  and  recited.     One  exercise  a 

week  may  well  be  given  to  the  recitation  of  memorized 
selections.     Train  for  good  expression. 

Several  copies  of  an  academio  dictionary  should  be  avail- 
able for  above  work. 


296        COUESB  or  STUDY  FOB  STATE  GRADES)  SCHOOLS. 

424.  LANGUAGE. 

1.  Language  book  as  a  basis  for  work  outlined  below. 

2.  Continue  work  of  letter  writing,  giving  attention  to  para- 

graphing,  correct  syllabication   at  end  of  line,   pun  etna 

tion,   capitalization  and  penmanship. 

•').   Drill  on  correct  use  of  pronouns  and  the  irregular  verb*. 
L  Brief  compositions  on  simple  and  familiar  topics,  suggested 

in  the  reading  and  geography  lessons. 
.">.   Have  pupils  write  short  compositions  from  brief  outlines. 

425.  ABITIIMETIO. 

1.  Short,,  sharp  drills  in  the  fundamental  operations 

2.  Factors  and  factoring. 

a.  Tests  of  divisibility  of  numbers. 

b.  Prime  factors  to  100. 

c.  Separation  of  numbers  into  prime  factors. 

d.  G.  O.  D. 
a  L.  C.  M. 

3.  Determine  L.  C.  M.  largely  by  inspection.     Limit  this  work 

to  numbers  whose  L.  O.  M.  does  not  exceed  144.  Thor- 
oughly master  tables  commonly  used  as  liquid,  dry, 
linear,  square  and  cubic  measure,  avoirdupois  weight, 
etc.,  and  give  practical  problems  involving  reduction  of 
the  same.  Limit  tables  to  those  in  common  use,  and  to 
two  denominations  in  the  same  example  or  problem. 

426.  GEOGRAPHY. 

» 

1 .   Primary  text  book  in  geography  completed. 
•).   Supplementary  readings   from  library. 

a.  Pay  special  attention   to  the  physical   features   ns  de- 

termining climate  and  hence  productions. 

b.  Teach  a  few  cities  but  dwell  upon  map  forms,  large 


OOUKSE  OF  STUDY  FOB  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOl^S.     297 

areas  of  productions  and  what  is  done  with  prod- 
ucts; the  work  of  man, 

c.  Use  library  books  in  teaching  how  raw  materials  are 
manufactured,  land  irrigated,  harbors  deepened, 
mountains  tunneled,  land  cultivated,  etc. 


427.  SPELLING. 

1.  Have  oral  spelling  from  a  speller. 

2.  Continue  the  oral  spelling  of  difficult  worda  from  the  read- 

ing lesson* 


428.  WRITING. 

1.  Copy  book  No.  4. 

2.  Movement  drills. 

3.  Business  forms,  letter  writing,   and  composition. 

The  penmanship  of  pupils  in  this  grade  should  be  uniformly 
good.  The  estimate  of  the  pupil's  standing  in  penmanship 
should  be  based  as  much  upon  his  habitual  performance  as 
shown  in  his  daily  written  work,  as  upon  his  special  penman- 
ship papers. 

429.  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

1.  Digestion.. 

a.  The  organs  of  digestion  briefly  described. 

b.  The  work  of  each  of  these  organs. 

c.  Good  habits  of  eating;  some  bad  but  common  habits  of 

eating.  The  effect  of  bad  foods  and  stimulants  upon 
the  organs  and  upon  the  process  of  digestion.  Wlirn 
to  take  exercise.  The  kinds  of  food  needed  by  the 
body,  and  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  requira!. 

See  Common  School  Manual,  number  277. 


298  COURSE   OF    STUDY    FOR    STATE   GRADED    SCHOOLS. 

2.  Breathing. 

a.  The  structure  of  the  lungs. 

b.  Function  of  the  lungs  and  how  they  perform  it. 

c.  Proper   habit   of   breathing.     Keeping   the   lungs   free 

from  pressure.  The  effects  of  bad  air.  Need  of 
pure  air.  How  to  keep  the  air  pure  in  and  about 
our  houses.  Helpful  breathing  exercises.  See  Com- 
mon School  Manual,  number  279. 

3.  The  circulation. 

a.  The  heart,  arteries,  veins,  and  blood. 

b.  The  office  of  the  blood.     Its  relation  to  digestion  and 

breathing.     The  manner  of  its  circulation. 

c.  How  the  quality  of  clothing  and  the  manner  in  which 

it  is  worn  affect  the  circulation.  How  alcohol  and 
narcotics  impoverish  the  blood,  make  it  impure  and 
retard  the  circulation.  Danger  of  blood  poisoning 
in  various  ways.  The  good  and  bad  effects  of  exer- 
cise. Common  School  Manual,  numbers  278,  281, 
281a,,  289. 

4.  The  nerves. 

a.  A  brief  general  study  of  the  nervous  system  including 

the  nerves  and  chief  nerve  centers.  The  nature  of 
nerve  tissue. 

b.  The  chief  office  of  the  nervous  system.     Some  of  its 

special  offices. 

c.  How  the  nerves  are  affected  by  fatigue  of  the  body, 

by  overworking  the  mind;  by  cheerfulness,  or  a  lack 
of  it  The  necessity  of  regular  and  sufficient  sleep 
and  exercise.  How  alcoholic  liquors,  tobacco  and 
other  stimulants  and  narcotics  injure  the  nerves  and 
through  them  disturb  the  functions  of  other  organs. 
See  Common  School  Manual,  numbers  282,  283, 
284,  285,  286,  287,  288,  290,  291. 

430.  HISTORY. 

1.  Study  of  biography  and  great  events  in  the  United  States 
history  continued. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOE  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.     299 

2.  American  inventions  and  inventors. 

Use  an  elementary  text  which  is  written  in  biographical 
form.  See  following  suggestions. 

Let  the  pupils  reproduce  orally  and  in  writing  the  portions 
studied. 

Language  and  History. 

The  work  in  history  in  all  grades  below  the  sixth  consists  of 
biographical  sketches  of  great  men,  interesting  historical 
stories,  and  tales  of  travel.  This  work  makes  the  best  possible 
basis  for  language  work  and  should  be  conducted  largely  as  a 
language  exercise.  Have  the  pupils  tell  these  stories  without 
interruption.  Questions  should  come  after  story  is  completed, 
for  the  purpose  of  bringing  out  points  omitted.  Have  the 
oral  exercises  followed  by  written  exercises* 


SIXTH  GEADE. 


431.  READING. 

Fourth  reader  and  supplementary  work  in  books  of  a  similar 
grade  found  in  the  school  library.  Geographical  readers  on 
Western  continent. 

1.  Intelligent  reading  insisted  upon  as  a  basis  for  expressive 

reading.  Meaning  of  words,  phrases,  clauses,  and  sen- 
tences must  be  clear  to  the  pupil  in  order  that  he  may 
read  intelligently.  The  study  of  the  dictionary  by  the 
pupil  must  be  supplemented  by  the  teacher's  instruction 
in  the  meaning  of  words  and  expressions. 

2.  Careful  preparation  for  each  day's  reading  lesson  should  be 

insisted  upon  by  the  teacher.  Unless  the  teacher  makes 
definite  assignment  of  work  to  be  prepared  the  pupils  can- 
not be  held  responsible  for  preparation. 


300     COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOB  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

3.  Reading  of  library  books  by  pupils  for  pleasure  as  well   a* 

for  information;  this  reading  should  be  done  at  homo  an.l 
in  school  outside  the  period  devoted  to  the  reading  rod  ra- 
tion. Pupils  may  report  orally  on  thi#  reading  during 
the  language  recitation  period. 

4.  One  exercise  a  week  in  the  recitation  oi  selections  memo- 

rized, 

432.  LANGUAGE, 

1.  Language  Book. 

2.  Continue  work  of  writing  compositions  fi-wri  outlines. 

3.  Have  pupils  write  compositions  based  OE  their  own  exper- 

ienca 

4.  Secure  definite  and  orderly  arrangement  <>£  oral  and  written 

expression. 

5.  Combine  short,   simple  sentences  into  easy   connected  dis- 

course. 
C.  Analysis  of  simple  sentences. 

433.  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  Fractions. 

a,  Nature  of  fractions. 

b.  Reduction  of  fractions. 

o.  Reduction   of   improper  fractions   to  whole  or  mixed 

numbers. 

d.  Addition  and  subtraction  of  fractions, 
a  Multiplication  and  division  of  fractions. 
f.  Practical   problems  by  teacher    and   puplils,   based   on 

the  foregoing. 

2.  Continue  writing  of  bills,  accounts,  orders,  a;id  receipts. 
Master  thoroughly  the  principles  by  means  of  fractions  hav 

ing  small  denominators.  Xine-tenths  of  the  work  in  fractions 
should  be  done  with  denominators  not  to  exceed  21.  Reduc- 
tion of  fractions  is  the  principal  unit.  When  that  is  thor- 


OODRSB  OF  STUDY  FOE  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.     301 

"uglily  understood,  addition  and  subtraction  will  not  present 
any  difficulty. 

3.  Decimals, 

a.  Nature  of  decimals. 

b.  Reading  and  writing  of  decimals. 

c.  System  of  decimal  notation,  extended  to  decimal  frac- 

tions. 

d.  Addition  and  subtraction  of  decimals, 
a  Multiplication  of  decimals. 

f.  Division  of  decimals. 

g.  Reduction  of   decimals   to  common  fractions   and   of 

common  fractions  to  decimals. 

h.  Practical  problems  formulated  by  teacher  and  pupils, 
based  on  the  foregoing. 

4.  Continue  the  work  on  tables  in  common  use.     Give  practical 

work  only  in  denominate  numbers.     Restrict  to  two 
denominations  in  a  problem  or  exampla 

434.  GEOGRAPHY. 

1 .  Advanced  text  book  in  Geography. 

2.  Supplementary  geographical  readers. 

a.  Western    hemisphere    completed   by    the   tracing    and 

sketching  method,  special  attention  being  given  to 
the  United  States. 

b.  Have  pupils  compare  the  conditions  of  the  section  un- 

der study  with  others  producing  a  like  product 

c.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  give  too  many  cities 

and  details  but  rather  fix  thoroughly  the  physical 
features,  the  great  routes  of  commerce,  occupations 
of  the  people  and  large  cities. 

d.  A  carefully  prepared  map  with  special  study  on  Wis- 

consin. 


302     COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 


435.  SPELLING. 

1.  Have  oral  spelling  once  per  day  from  a  speller. 

2.  Continue  the  oral  spelling  of  difficult  words  from  the  read- 

ing lesson. 

3.  Drill  on  words  frequently  misspelled. 

436.  WRITING. 

1.  Movement  drills. 

2.  Commercial  papers  and  other  forms  of  composition. 

3.  Secure  speed. 

4.  Use  period  for  penmanship  in  movement  drills,   secure  an 

easy  fore  arm  movement,  correct  position  and  rapid  legi- 
ble writing. 

437.  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

1.  Regular  recitations   frbm   an   elementary   texffc.     Complete 

the  text,  following  the  order  there  given. 

2.  Review.     Enlarge  upon,  but  follow  order  of  topics  suggested 

for  fourth  and  fifth  grades. 

See  Common  School  Manual,  numbers  292-305   inclusive. 

438.  HISTORY. 

Reading  of  and  reports  on  books  on  history  from  the  school 

library. 
The  outline  in  history  for  this  grado  is  light  on  account  of  the 

heavy  work  in  physiology. 
Assign  books  or  p<arts  of  books  for  pupils  to  read   at  home. 

Have  reports  both  oral  and  written  as  often  as  convenient. 

These  reports  may  be  given  in  language  class. 


COUliSE    OF    STUDY    FUR    STATE   GRADED    SCHOOLS.  303 


SEVENTH  GRADE. 


439.  LITERATURE. 

U?e  several  complete  selections  of  standard  literature  which 
will  give  variety  and  at  the  same  time  interest  pupils  and  in- 
troduce them  to  good  literature.  In  these  grades  pupils  should 
become  familiar  with  much  that  has  been  written  by  Ameri- 
can authors.  Systematic  use  of  books  in  the  school  library 
should  be  continued. 

1.  The   historical,    geographical,   literary,    and    scientific   allu- 

sions found  in  the  reading  matter  should  be  explained  to 
the  extent  necessary  for  an  understanding  and  apprecia- 
tion of  the  selection  in  which  they  occur. 

2.  The  teacher  should  train   pupils  in   such   analysis   of   sen- 

tences as  is  necessary  to  secure  the  correct  interpretation, 
and  by  questioning  should  test  thoroughly  the  pupil's  un- 
derstanding of  what  is  read. 

3.  Continued  attention  should  be  given  to  pronunciation,   ar- 

ticulation, quality  of  tone,,  emphasis,  and  inflection  in  the 
pupil's  reading  in  order  to  secure  good  expression. 

4.  Weekly  recitation  of  memorized  selections  continued. 
Consult  and  follow  plan  and  method  outlined  for  work  in 

literature  and  literary  reading  in  "Manual  of  the  Free  High 
Schools." 

When  necessary  select  reading  matter  less  difficult  than  that 
indicated  in  the  High  School  Manual. 

440.  GRAMMAR. 

1.  Complete  the  first  half  of  any  good  grammar. 

2.  Write  descriptive  and  narrative  compositions,   paying  par- 

ticular attention  to  the  choice  of  words  and  expressions, 

3.  Write  letters  of  introduction,  recommendation,  application, 

formal  invitations  and  replies,  notes,  bills,  and  receipts. 


504  OOUBJSIJ   OF   STUDY    FOB   8T±TE   GBADED   SCHOOLS. 

441.    AjtlTHMBTlO. 

1.  Briefly  review  essentials  of  sixth  grade  work. 

2.  Percentage. 

a.  Nature  of  percentage, 

b.  Percentage  table  of  per  cents  and  equivalent  fractions. 

c.  The  three  general  problems  in  percentage. 

1.  Finding  any  per  cent  of  a  number. 

2.  Finding  what  per  cent  one  number  is  of  another. 

3.  Finding  the  number  when  a  given  per  cent  of  it 

is  known. 

d.  Applications  of  percentage  not  involving  the  element 

of  time. 
1.  Profit  and  loss. 

2.  Commercial  discount* 

3.  Commission  and  brokerage,  omitting  problems  in 

buying  where  sum  includes  investment  and  com- 
mission. 

4.  Insurance. 

5.  Taxes. 

6.  Customs  and  duties. 

3.  Applications  of  percentage  involving  the  element  of  time. 

a.  Simple  interest;  one  good  method  taught;  interest 
tables  made  and  their  use  explained;  promissory 
notes  studied,  negotiable  and  non-negotiable,  interest 
bearing  and  non-interest  bearing;  indorsements;  pro- 
test 

4.  Needed  reviews. 

442.  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Advanced  textbook  in  Geography. 

2.  Supplementary  Geographical  readers. 

a.  Teach  Europe. 

b.  Complete  the  other  grand  divisions  in  a  similar 

manner   but  do  not  give  as  extended  work  on 
item. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.     305 

c.  Teach  comparative   geography,   especially   of   Eu- 

rope and  United  States. 

d.  Pay   much   attention   to  the   relative  positions   of 

countries  usin'g  the  southern  line  of  Wisconsin, 
Milwaukee  or  some  prominent  natural  feature 
of  the  United  States  with  which  to  compare. 


443.  SPELLING. 

1.  Oral  spelling  from  speller  and  difficult  words  selected  by 

the  teacher  from  the  work  of  the  class. 

2.  Much  drill  on  difficult  words. 

3.  Teach  four  or  five  simple  rules  of  spelling  and  have  pupils 

illustrate    the    application    of    these    rules  to    the  words 
spelled. 

4.  Written  spelling  from  speller  once  per  day. 

444.  WRITING. 

1.  ISTeerlrd  drill  and  practice  for  those  not  exempt. 
See  outline  for  preceding  grades. 

445.  HISTORY. 

1.  United  States  History  to  close  of  Revolutionary  WTar.  Fol- 

low text  in  use. 

2.  Review  the  foregoing  under  these  heads : 

a.  Discovery  and  early  exploration  of  America,  and 

causes  which  led  different  nations  to  plant  colo- 
nies. 

b.  Manner  of  life  in  different  colonies,  and  the  rela- 

tions of  colonists  to  the  aboriginal  races. 

c.  Conflicting  claims  of  European  nations,   and  the 

final  struggle  for  supremacy  in  North  America. 

21— C. 


306     COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 

d.  The  causes    of    the    revolutionary    war,   and   the 

growth  of  the  desire  for  self-government, 

e.  Political  history   during  and  immediately  follow- 

ing the  Revolution ;  social  disorder. 

a.  The   Continental  Congress,   how  constituted, 

weakness. 

b.  Declaration  of  Independence. 

o.  Articles    of    Confederation — origin,    ratifica- 
tion, significance,  principal  features. 

d.  Treaty  and  Alliance  with  France — its  mili- 

tary, political  and  social  effects. 

e.  Conventions  of  1786  and  1787. 

f.  Ratification  of  the  Constitution. 

cr.  Federal  and  Anti-Federal  doctrines. 


446,  DRAWING,  SINGING. 
See  Common  School  Manual. ' 


EIGHTH  GRADE. 


447.  LITERATURE. 
(First  half  of  year.) 

See  outline  for  seventh  grada 

448.  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
(Second  half  of  year.) 

Use  text  book.     See  outline  in  Manual  for  Common  Schools. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.        307 

449.  GRAMMAR. 

1.  Last  half  of  any  good  grammar. 

2.  Continue  composition  work  in  similar  manner  to  the  work 

in  preceding  grades. 

3.  Have  pupils  prepare  outlines  of  subjects  and  write  from 

them. 

4.  Continue  the  writing  of  letters  of  introduction,  recommend- 

ation, etc.,  of  the  preceding  grade. 

5.  Supplement  the  exercises  in  analysis  and  parsing  by  work 

selected  from  the  reading  lessons. 

450.  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  Briefly  review  essentials  of  seventh  grade  work  in  percent- 

age. 

2.  Applications  of  percentage  involving  the  element  of  time, 

a.  Partial  payments.     Work  solely  by  the  United  States 

rule.     Do  not  make  the  work  too  difficult,  but  bring 
in  cases  of  payments  less  than  interest  due. 

b.  Bank  discount.     Limited  to  finding  the  bank  discount 

on  sums  due  at  maturity. 

c.  True  present  worth. 

d.  Compound  interest:     nature  and  use  of  tables. 

3.  Practical  measurements,    including    elements  of    longitude 

and  time.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  measure  yards, 
houses,  rooms,  etc.,  and  to  determine  from  the  data  thus 
obtained  the  area,  cost  of  fencing,  cost  of  shingling,  cost 
of  painting  schoolhouse,  cost  of  laying  a  new  floor,  cost  of 
papering  room,  etc. 

4.  Square  and  cube  root,  ratio  and  proportion. 

5.  Continue  writing  of  commercial  papers  and  practical  prob- 

lems formulated  by  teacher  and  pupils,  based  on  the  fore- 
going. 
G.  Needed  reviews. 


451.  SPELLING. 

1.  Apply  rules  learned  in  previous  grade  to  words  in  connec- 

tion with  other  studies. 

2.  Have  pupils  keep  a  list  of  misspelled  words  and  the  teacher 

give  drills  upon  this  list. 

3.  Drill  on  difficult  words  from  other  studies. 


452.  WRITING. 

1.   deeded  drill  and  practice  for  those  not  exempt. 
S<.'o  outline  for  preceding  grades. 

453.  HISTORY. 

First  two  terms. 

1.  Review  articles  of  confederation,  constitutional  convention, 

ratification  and  constitution,  federal  and  anti-federal  doc- 
trines. 

2.  Study  constitutional  period.     Follow  the  text  in  use. 

3.  Heview  periods  under  these  heads: 

a:.   Political  parties:     origin,   principles,   leaders,   growth. 

b.  Slavery ;    measures    favoring    extension ;    measures    re- 

stricting it     Effect  of  each. 

c.  Civil    War :    causes ;    leading    campaigns ;    reconstruc- 

tion. 

d.  Territorial  acquisitions;  what?  when?  why? 

s.  Industrial  progress:  inventions;  improvement  in 
travel,  manufacturing,  farming,  building,  housekeep- 
ing, education,  etc. 

454.  PHYSIOLOGY. 

Last  term-. 
Review  thoroughly  and  enlarge  upon  outline  for  sixth  grade. 


OOUBS3  OF  STUDY  FOK  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.        SOU 

455.   CONSTITUTION'. 
First  two  terms. 

UNITED   STATES    CONSITUTION. 

1.  Preamble. 

Source  of  power  recognized,  purpose  stated. 

2.  Legislative: 

a.  Reasons  for  having  two  houses,  membership,  organiza- 

tion, limitations,  special  powers;  method  of  lawmak- 

ing- 

b.  Powers  most  used  and  most  abused,  most  expansive. 

c.  "General  welfare"  clause,  elasticity. 

d.  Impeachment 

3.  Executive: 

a.  Elections;  what  complications  have  arisen,   and  what 

remedies   have  been   applied ;    conventions,    national 
and  state. 

b.  Powers  and  duties;  special  attention  to  the  origin,  ex- 

tent and  limitations  of  the  appointing  power;  Civil 
Service  Commission. 

4.  Judicial: 

a.  How  judges  are  selected,  term  of  office. 

b.  Courts,  kinds  and  relations,  powers. 

5.  Sovereignty: 

a.  Supreme  law  of  the  land;  reserve  powers,  provisions 
relating  to  states,  officials  and  individuals;  control 
of  territory  and  admission  of  states,  guaranty  of  re- 
publican government,  citizenship,  suffrage. 

6.  Amendments: 

a.  Process  of  making;  what  changes  have  been  effected, 
especially  by  later  amendments. 

The  general  organization  and  work  of  the  several  executive 
departments;  as  the  Postoffice,  Weather  Bureau,  various  offices 
in  the  Treasury  Department;  the  President's  Message. 


olO  COURSE   OF    STUDY    FOR    STATE   GRADED    SCHOOLS. 

WISCONSIN    CONSTITUTION. 

Follow  the  above  specifications  so  far  as  applicable,  with 
special  attention  to  articles  on  Declaration  of  Rights,  Execu- 
tive, Administrative,  and  Legislative  Departments;  Education 
and  Finance. 

456.  ORTHOEPY. 
Last  term. 

1.  A  brief  study  of  the  organs  of  voice  and  organs  of  speech 

with  special  reference  to  the  correct  use  of  these  organs 
in  producing  the  elementary  sounds. 

2.  D»rill  on  diacritical  marks  and  the  elementary  sounds  which 

they  represent.  Pupils  should  be  able  to  write  readily, 
lists  of  diacritical  marks  with  corresponding  key- words; 
also  tables  of  substitute  vowel  sounds,  (different  vowels 
marked  so  as  to  represent  the  same  sound). 

3.  Teach  the  simple  principles  of  syllabication  and  accent. 

4.  Teach  and  apply  rules  for  marking  vowels  in  accented  syl- 

lables, also  the  most  important  rules  for  marking  vowels 
in  unaccented  syllables.  Considerable  time  should  be 
spent  in  systematic  analysis  of  words,  applying  rules  re- 
ferred to  above.  Use  simple  words  until  rules  and  their 
applications  are  thoroughly  mastered;  then  drill  upon 
troublesome  words  often  mispronounced. 

NOTE. — It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  teachers  must  give 
drill  upon  diacritical  marks  and  the  sounds  which  they  repre- 
sent;  through  the  entire  course  in  connection  with  reading,  but 
experience  has  proved  that  a  term  at  the  end  of  the  course  can 
be  well  spent  in  rounding  up  this  work.  Too  many  graduates 
are  found  deficient  in  pronunciation. 

Our  public  school  system  has  differentiated  itself  into  four 
distinct  steps,  each  having  its  own  course  of  study;  the  rural 
school,  state  graded  school,  three  year  course  high  school,  and 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOE  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS.     311 

four  year  course  high  school.  In  general  the  three  year  high 
school  stage  seems  the  least  satisfactory  in  the  development  of 
the  system,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there  are  some  strong 
three  year  high  schools.  This  form  of  school  was  originally 
intended  as  a  stepping  stone  to  a  complete  four  year  school. 
In  Minnesota  it  has  entirely  disappeared.  Much  of  the  weak- 
ness has  been  due  to  lack  of  teaching  force.  In  many  of  these 
schools  the  high  school  boards  are  this  year  for  the  first  time, 
providing  assistants,  and  no  doubt  a  large  percentage  will  be 
found  to  be  in  a  much  improved  condition.  Nevertheless  the 
three  year  school  may  be  safely  counted  a  temporary  stage.  It 
seems  a  wise  policy  to  caution  graded  schools  against  hurrying 
into  the  three  year  high  school  stage.  A  strong  graded  school 
can  do  more  efficient  work  than  a  poor  three  year  high  school. 
Before  attempting  to  organize  a  high  school,  it  ought  to  be  rea- 
sonably certain  that  local  conditions  will,  in  a  very  short  time, 
assure  a  four  year  course  with  an  assistant  principal.  The  fol- 
lowing year's  work  is  designed  for  state  graded  schools  that 
find  it  necessary  to  do  work  beyond  the  graded  school  proper. 
The  consent  of  the  state  department  should  always  be  obtained 
before  attempting  to  do  any  of  this  work.  In  the  revising  of 
the  course  of  study  algebra  and  physical  geography  have  been 
taken  out  of  the  eighth  grade  and  history  and  constitution  have 
been  given  more  time.  Arithmetic,  orthoepy,  and  physiology 
have  been  put  into  the  eighth  year. 


312     COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  STATE  GRADED  SCHOOLS. 


NINTH  GRADE. 


457.  First  Term. 

Algebra. 

Physical  Geography. 
Grammar  and  Composition. 
Literary  Reading. 

458.  Second  Term. 

Algebra, 

Physical  Geography. 
Grammar  and  Composition. 
Literary  Reading. 

459.  Third  Term. 

Algebra- 
Elements  of  Agriculture. 
Grammar  and  Composition. 
Literary  Reading. 

NOTE. — The  ninth  grade  work  corresponds  with  the  first 
year  of  high  school  work.  For  suggestions  see  High  School 
Manual. 


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